A grammar of Wangkajunga: a language of the Great Sandy Desert of North Western Australia Pacific Linguistics 636 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the School of Culture, History and Language in the College of Asia and the Pacific at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: I Wayan Arka and Malcolm Ross (Managing Editors), Mark Donohue, Nicholas Evans, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson, and Darrell Tryon EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne Harold Koch, The Australian National Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African University Studies Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i Auckland Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- John Lynch, University of the South Pacific Universität Mainz Patrick McConvell, The Australian National Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i University David Bradley, La Trobe University William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Lyle Campbell, University of Hawai’i Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- James Collins, Northern Illinois University Universität zu Kiel Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la Evolutionary Anthropology Recherche Scientifique Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- at Buffalo Universität Frankfurt am Main Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Ger Reesink, Radboud University, Nijmegen at Arlington Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i Margaret Florey, Resource Network for Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la Linguistic Diversity Recherche Scientifique William Foley, University of Sydney Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Karl Franklin, SIL International Auckland Charles Grimes, SIL International Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Nikolaus Himmelmann, Universität zu Köln John Wolff, Cornell University Lillian Huang, Shih-chien University, Taiwan Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Jaya A grammar of Wangkajunga: a language of the Great Sandy Desert of North Western Australia Barbara Jones Pacific Linguistics College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics School of Culture, History and Language College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2011 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Author: Jones, Barbara Josephine, 1947- Title: A grammar of Wangkajunga : a language of the Great Sandy Desert of north Western Australia / Barbara Jones. ISBN: 9780858836488 (pbk.) Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: Australian languages--Western Australia--Kimberley--Grammar. Aboriginal Australians--Western Australia--Kimberley--Languages. Kimberley (W.A.)--Languages--Grammar. Other Authors/ Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Contributors: Asian Studies. Pacific Linguistics. Dewey Number: 499.155 Copyedited by Sandra Davenport Cover design by Julie Manley Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd., Fyshwick, Canberra Table of contents Wangkajunga consultants ................................................................................................. xxiii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... xxiv Preface .............................................................................................................................. xxvi Abbreviations and conventions ...................................................................................... xxviii Maps ................................................................................................................................. xxxi 1 The language and its speakers .................................................................................. 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The traditional lives of the Wangkajunga people ............................................... 1 1.1.1 The Canning Stock Route ..................................................................... 3 1.1.2 The move to the cattle stations ............................................................. 4 1.1.3 The government settlement at Moola Bulla ......................................... 5 1.2 The Wangkajunga social system ........................................................................ 6 1.3 The Wangkajunga language ............................................................................... 9 1.3.1 Linguistic type ...................................................................................... 9 1.3.2 The contents of this grammar ............................................................. 10 1.3.3 The meaning of the language name .................................................... 11 1.4 Linguistic grouping in the Western Desert in northern Western Australia ............................................................................................. 11 1.4.1 Lexical comparison of Wangkajunga, other Western Desert languages and Walmajarri .................................................................. 12 1.4.2 Warnman ............................................................................................ 13 1.4.3 Language1 and language2 terms ........................................................ 13 1.4.4 Traditional linguistic grouping in the Western Desert in Western Australia ............................................................................................. 14 1.4.4.1 Language1 names in the Western Desert .................................. 14 1.4.4.2 Modern linguistic grouping in the Western Desert of Western Australia ...................................................................... 16 1.4.4.3 Speakers’ use of the name ‘Wangkajunga’ ............................... 18 1.5 Numbers of speakers and current locations ...................................................... 18 1.6 Previous work on the language ......................................................................... 20 v vi Table of contents 1.6.1 Wangkajunga ....................................................................................... 20 1.6.2 Work on other northwestern languages of the Western Desert language. ............................................................................................. 20 1.6.2.1 Yulparija .................................................................................... 20 1.6.2.2 Manyjilyjarra and Kartujarra ..................................................... 21 1.6.2.3 Kukatja ....................................................................................... 21 1.6.3 Research on and literacy materials for other languages of the Western Desert .......................................................................... 22 1.6.3.1 Pintupi ........................................................................................ 22 1.6.3.2 Ngaanyatjarra, Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara and Gugada 22 1.7 Fieldwork methodology .................................................................................... 22 1.7.1 Consultants .......................................................................................... 22 1.7.2 Elicitation ............................................................................................ 23 1.7.3 Field trips ............................................................................................ 24 1.7.4 Recording texts .................................................................................... 24 1.7.5 Financial support ................................................................................. 25 2 Phonology .................................................................................................................. 26 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 26 2.1 The Wangkajunga phoneme inventory .............................................................. 26 2.1.1 Wangkajunga consonants .................................................................... 27 2.1.1.1 Apical contrasts ......................................................................... 27 2.1.1.2 Pronunciation of stops and nasals .............................................. 28 2.1.1.3 Laminal contrasts ....................................................................... 29 2.1.1.4 Rhotic contrasts ......................................................................... 29 2.1.1.5 Pronunciation of rhotics ............................................................. 30 2.1.1.6 The distribution of /r/ and /rr/ ...................................................