Mexican Film Censorship and the Creation of Regime Legitimacy, 1913-1945 Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Reyna Marie Esquivel-King, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2019 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Stephanie Smith, Advisor Dr. Laura Podalsky Dr. Stanley Blake 1 Copyrighted by Reyna Marie Esquivel-King 2019 2 Abstract My dissertation, entitled, “Mexican Film Censorship and the Creation of Regime Legitimacy, 1913-1945,” argues that Mexican government officials used cinema censorship to disseminate a positive image of Mexico and Mexicans as modern and prosperous, and attempted to create an appearance of stability and control. Utilizing archival sources, newspapers, journals, and film propaganda, I examine how regimes use film censorship as a tool to legitimize their power through images. Specifically, I focus on representations of women, the indigenous, and Mexicans in U.S. cinema. The officials realized the significant persuasive and influential power that visual media had over its vast and far-reaching audiences, especially the increasingly popular form of film. They saw censorship as an efficient and effective tool they could use to create and/or change the course of any given tide of public sentiment or opinion. They implemented film censorship and the use of positive imagery to serve two purposes. One reason being to convince international audiences of Mexico’s status as a modern, powerful, and independent nation. The second was to persuade domestic audiences of the Mexican government’s legitimacy to rule and restore a sense of national pride in order to breed a common desire for national unity. While other scholars have discussed censorship, none have looked at the broader, transnational aspects and consequences that my dissertation analyzes. ii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to Trudy Washburn (Grandmother), Felipe Esquivel I (Father) and Ingrid Bradford (Aunt). May they rest in peace. iii Acknowledgments This project is combination of interests that I have had going back to my undergraduate years at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. The variety of different classes I took provided me with the opportunity to explore the idea of difference by studying issues of race, ethnicity, and identity, including their historical importance. Consequently, I took an avid interest in classes that addressed the history of those subjects. These classes, along with additional courses in women and gender studies, helped me contextualize concepts of race and gender. For me, history provided a way to understand the social construction of race and gender, and, in turn, assisted in understanding myself. I chose to study Mexican cinema and how Mexican directors and producers represent masculinity because of a documentary entitled Tough Guise that I watched in an introductory course to women and gender studies. In 2012, I completed my master’s thesis entitled, “Vampires, Monsters, and Santa Clause: Sociopolitical Representations of Gender, Class, and the Cold War in Three Mexican Horror Films, 1954- 1959,” that examined the image of masculinity in Mexican horror films of the 1950s. I became fascinated with how I could use cinema to understand the construction of identity and nationality. It was during my readings in my doctoral graduated classes that I read about the story of how Vámonos con pancho villa (1936) initially had an alternative conclusion that ended with Villa killing the main character and his family; however, the Mexican censorship board rejected this script and stated a new one needed to be created that was less critical of the Mexican Revolution. I was intrigued by this and wondered what other films were altered and why. I decided to analyze, over a 30-year period, how government officials could create a iv concept of national identity using censorship. It is through this work that I share the fascinating connection between censorship and the building of national identity in postrevolutionary Mexico. I owe my thanks and gratitude to my Ph.D. advisor, Dr. Stephanie Smith, first and foremost. Her knowledge and guidance have shaped who I am as an intellectual and scholar. She has read this dissertation too many times to count and her feedback and advice have been invaluable to my dissertation. Her own scholarship provided an outstanding example for me to follow and learn from. I am greatly indebted to her. I would also like to thank the other members of my dissertation committee from the Ohio State University, Dr. Podalsky and Dr. Stanley Blake, for reading and commenting on my work. Dr. Podlasky’s suggestions and observations about Latin American film studies were incredibly helpful and opened my mind to new methodologies and ways of looking at cinema. Dr. Blake’s own recommendations at examining popular culture in Brazil helped me shape a more transnational viewpoint of Latin American film and identity. This research would not have been possible without the numerous awards and prizes from Ohio State University. In 2014, I received the Tinker Field Research Grant from the Center for Latin American Studies that allowed me to conduct preliminary research in Mexico City which led to the creation of this project. The Ohio State University History Department generously provided funding for me to conduct four summers of research in various parts of Mexico and the United States. While completing this dissertation I have the pleasure of meeting and working with amazing archivists and colleagues both in the United States and in Mexico. I would like to thank all the archivists at the Archivo General de la Nacíon in Mexico City for their patience with me, especially when locating the Secretary of Public Education records, which took much longer than v I originally thought. These files were a huge resource for my dissertation, and I am so appreciative for their kindness, hard work, and professionalism towards me each of the four summers I visited there. The archivists at Cineteca Nacional were wonderful as well, and very excited about my project. At the Biblioteca Pública del Estado de Jalisco “Juan José Arreola” in Guadalajara, the archivists led me to priceless documents about the lives of women in the Mexican film industry. My numerous friends and colleagues in the history department at Ohio State have read my work numerous times and gave me helpful and insightful feedback that shaped my dissertation. I am grateful for our long conversations about academia and our work and for their constant support. Last, but not at all least, I would like to thank my family. My mother, Lorri Esquivel, has always supported me in whatever dream I had, ever since I was a child. She let me be who I wanted and unconditionally supported my endeavors. My grandmother, Trudy Washburn, who was called Omi, was my second mother and my rock. She passed away before I completed this dissertation, but her love and words of encouragement are seen within the pages of this work. My grandfather Donald Washburn, my brother, Felipe Esquivel II, my uncle Donald Washburn Jr., and my aunt Debra Reske, have provided me with tremendous support and encouragement, always calling to check up on my mental and emotional health, as well as my academic journey. I am so happy to have my entire family in my corner. Finally, I give my biggest thanks to my loving husband, Paul King, who has moved from city to city and school to school as I perused my dream of receiving a history Ph.D. He has happily edited my papers, chapters, etc. and been there to encourage me through all the difficult and emotional times and our long talks and conversations have helped shape my research in many ways. I am so glad that he was a part of this journey and my academic growth. vi Vita May 2005 …………………………………………. Henry Ford II High School May 2010 …………………………………………. B.A. History and Social Studies, University of Michigan-Dearborn May 2012 …………………………………………. M.A. History, New York University August 2012- Present……………………………… Graduate Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: History vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. iv Vita .................................................................................................................................... vii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: How is Censorship Legal and what is the purpose? Conversations about Censorship ......................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter Two: Consolidating the Cultural Revolution- The History of Bureaucracies ..... 74 Chapter Three: Mexican Film and the International Audience- Reconstructing Race Transnationally ............................................................................................................... 126 Chapter Four: Unions- Foundation of the Film Industry ................................................ 174 Chapter Five: