The Journal of Positive Psychology, April 2006; 1(2): 61–71 Positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with Big Five personality and attachment style MICHELLE N. SHIOTA, DACHER KELTNER, & OLIVER P. JOHN University of California at Berkeley, USA Abstract Although theorists have proposed the existence of multiple distinct varieties of positive emotion, dispositional positive affect is typically treated as a unidimensional variable in personality research. We present data elaborating conceptual and empirical differences among seven positive emotion dispositions in their relationships with two core personality constructs, the ‘‘Big Five’’ and adult attachment style. We found that the positive emotion dispositions were differentially associated with self- and peer-rated Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Openness to Experience, and Neuroticism. We also found that different adult attachment styles were associated with different kinds of emotional rewards. Findings support the theoretical utility of differentiating among several dispositional positive emotion constructs in personality research. Keywords: Emotion; positive emotion; positive psychology; personality; Big Five; attachment Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 22:51 20 December 2007 Introduction Shiota, Campos, Keltner, & Hertenstein, 2004). In the present investigation we explored distinctions Philosophers and writers have long debated the nature among the major personality correlates of several of happiness, reaching a wide range of conclusions, corresponding positive emotion dispositions. Prior but never a consensually accepted definition. studies have documented robust relationships Recently scientists have joined this enterprise, creat- between global positive affect and the Big Five trait ing a flourishing line of inquiry: a Psycinfo search Extraversion, as well as secure adult attachment for ‘‘happiness’’ now yields over 4,500 citations. But style (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1980; Gross, Sutton, & what is happiness? Reducing positive emotion to this Ketelaar, 1998; McCrae & John, 1992; Simpson, single construct has proved to be a common empirical 1990; Torquati & Rafaelli, 2004; Watson & Clark, practice. Within the field of emotion, many studies 1997). We sought to document relationships have not considered possible distinctions among between several distinct positive emotion disposi- positive emotions (e.g., Davidson, 1993; Ekman tions, the Five Factor Model personality traits, and et al., 1987; Isen, Niedenthal, & Cantor, 1992; attachment styles, asking whether these relationships Levenson, Ekman, Heider, & Friesen, 1992; although show greater differentiation than suggested by earlier see Fehr & Russell, 1984; Shaver, Morgan, & Wu, research. 1996; Smith & Ellsworth, 1988). Within personality research, there is also a pronounced emphasis on dispositions toward global positive and negative Positive affect and the Big Five affect or mood, rather than the frequency and inten- sity of experiencing particular emotion states (Larsen One of the most robust findings in the literature & Ketelaar, 1989; Pervin, 1993; Watson, Clark, & on affect and personality is the strong correlation Tellegen, 1988). between dispositional global positive affect and the Several theorists, however, posit the existence Big Five factor Extraversion (e.g., Costa & McCrae, of multiple positive emotions (Ekman, 1994; 1980; Gross, Sutton, & Ketelaar, 1998; John, 1990; Fredrickson, 1998; Lazarus, 1991; Panksepp, 1998; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992; Correspondence: Michelle N. Shiota, Institute for Personality and Social Research, University of California at Berkeley, 4143 Tolman Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-5050, USA. E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 1743-9760 print/ISSN 1743-9779 online/06/020061–11 ß 2006 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/17439760500510833 62 M. N. Shiota et al. Watson & Clark, 1997; Wilson & Gullone, 1999). There are hints in the empirical literature that Extraversion scores predict frequency and inten- different aspects of positive affect are differentially sity of felt positive emotion, as well as reactivity associated with various Big Five factors. For exam- to positive feedback (Bachorowski & Braaten, 1994; ple, Watson and Clark (1992) replicated McCrae Larsen & Ketelaar, 1989; Meyer & Shack, 1989; and Costa’s primary finding that global positive Watson & Clark, 1997; Wilson & Gullone, 1999). affect was best predicted by Extraversion, but also In a study of responses to humorous film clips, found differentiation in predicting more specific Extraversion scores significantly predicted absolute positive affect outcomes. Extraversion accounted level of positive emotion and degree of increase for the most variability in joviality, somewhat less in positive emotion during viewing, suggesting that in self-assurance, and considerably less in atten- Extraversion involves both positive emotion baseline tiveness. Agreeableness was a significant predictor and reactivity (Gross, Sutton, & Ketelaar, 1998). of joviality and self-assurance, even after the effects Based on these findings, theorists have variously of Extraversion had been controlled, but not of atten- concluded that that Extraversion ‘‘predisposes indi- tiveness. Conscientiousness predicted attentiveness viduals toward positive affect’’ (Costa & McCrae, more strongly than did Extraversion. Neuroticism 1980, p. 673), that positive affect forms the core only consistently predicted self-assurance. Although of Extraversion (Hogan, 1983; Watson & Clark, few emotion theorists would consider self-assurance 1997; Wiggins, 1979), or that individual differences and attentiveness to be emotions per se, these in the activity of a neurological reward system findings do encourage looking more closely at provide the foundation for both (e.g., Carver & specific relationships between various positive emo- White, 1994; Depue & Iacono, 1989; Gray, 1970; tion dispositions and the Big Five. Does Extraversion Watson & Clark, 1997). Relationships between facilitate dispositional experience of all positive global positive affect and the rest of the Big Five emotions equally, or does it facilitate some more are less well established. Although global positive than others? Can the independent associations of affect is predicted most strongly by Extraversion, the other four Big Five factors with positive affect Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 22:51 20 December 2007 McCrae and Costa (1991) found that it is also be explained in terms of distinct correlations with independently related to the other Big Five factors: particular positive emotion dispositions? Addressing Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and these questions was the first aim of the present study. Openness to Experience. The mechanisms behind these relationships are less well articulated. Positive affect and adult attachment style In research on Big Five correlates of positive affect, the latter variable is often measured using the The second aim of the present study was to assess Positive Affect scale of the Positive And Negative the relationships between several specific positive Affect Schedule (PANAS-PA; Watson et al., 1988). emotion dispositions and adult attachment style in The 10 items of the PANAS-PA illustrate the the context of romantic relationships. Adult attach- distinction between dispositional positive affect, the ment style has profound implications for emotional subject of previous Big Five studies, and disposi- experience, because the internal working models tional positive emotion, the subject of the present of self and other that underlie attachment style help study: enthusiastic, interested, determined, excited, organize emotional responses to events in the social inspired, alert, active, strong, proud, and attentive. and material environment (Fraley & Shaver, 2000; The PANAS-PA scale was designed to measure Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994; Hazan & Shaver, overall high energy and pleasurable engagement with 1987). Adults tending toward secure attachment the environment (Watson et al., 1988). A frequent styles have positive working models of their own use of the PANAS-PA is in the measurement desirability and worth in relationships, as well as of positive aspects of psychological well-being of others’ trustworthiness and support. Secure (e.g., Adler & Fagley, 2005; Isaacowitz, 2005; attachment provides the psychological foundation MacLeod & Conway, 2005), a purpose to which for exploring the material environment and taking it is admirably suited. However, several PANAS-PA advantage of new opportunities, as well as enhancing items measure constructs that would not be consid- the experience of close relationships (Ainsworth, ered emotions by most theorists (e.g., determined, 1982; Bowlby, 1979). Adults tending toward alert), and several varieties of positive emotion that attachment anxiety are less confident about their have received increasing attention from researchers own value as relationship partners, and are more are not represented (e.g., contentment, love, amuse- vigilant for signs of betrayal or abandonment ment). Recognizing this distinction, the authors (Fraley & Shaver, 2000). Adults tending toward of the PANAS have since renamed the instrument attachment avoidance are less convinced of the the Positive and Negative Activation Schedule value of intimate relationships, and generally avoid (Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999). getting close to others. Some studies suggest that Dispositional positive