UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I LIBRARY AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF HAWAIIAN CHRISTIANITY IN THE PAST AND THE PRESENT A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANTHROPOLOGY May 2003 By Akihiro Inoue Dissertation Committee: Alice G. Dewey, Chairperson C. Fred Blake Christine R. Yano David L. Hanlon Jonathan K. K. Osorio © Copyright 2003 by Akihiro Inoue iii ToSakae, Akinari, Eiji and Ayumi IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest thanks and respect are owed to those who willingly complied with my request for an interview and gave me various inspiring talks. Some ofthem are affectionately called kahu among their congregations, others work hard as church members to contribute to their churches. Whether they are Hawaiian or not, I understand that they are leading a Christian life, which I can learn much from. All of those who shared their perspectives with me in my interviews stimulated me to probe into the problem offaith, which I must deal with personally as well as academically. I refrain from identifying them in order to maintain their anonymity, and only give most of them the general term of "Christian Hawaiians," which certainly obscures the significant diversity oftheir personality. If they are not convinced by the way their narratives were interpreted, I will have to engage in further dialogue in order to answer to them. I extend my hearty thanks to members ofmy dissertation committee. Due to personal circumstances that I had to return to Japan before completing my research, and because of my slow pace of writing, I was not able to hold the original committee. I am grateful to Alice G. Dewey who readily consented to succeed the chair and gave me every encouragement, C. Fred Blake and David L. Hanlon whose thoughtful comments in various stages provided me with plenty of inspiration, Christine R. Yano and Jonathan K. K. Osorio who willingly joined the committee in order to rescue me in the final stage. I wish to thank all ofthem for their critical engagement with my dissertation writing. The content of the dissertation, however, is entirely my own responsibility. I am also grateful to the former committee members, Jocelyn S. Linnekin and S. Alan Howard, for their advice on my research in the earlier stage, both ofwhom were unable to remain on my committee until the end because of the slow progress of my work. v Chapter 2 is based on an article that appeared in Anthropological Forum 10 (2):157-177,2000. I thank Robert Tonkinson and reviewers from Anthropological Forum for their thoughtful comments on drafts of this article. Portions of Chapter 5 appeared in Man and Culture in Oceania 14:31-68, 1998. Matoti Yamamoto and reviewers from Man and Culture in Oceania offered helpful suggestions on earlier drafts, which I deeply appreciate. I acknowledge the aforementioned two journals that consent to incorporate the published articles in this dissertation. This dissertation is an overdue final product that should punctuate my study abroad at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa. My academic life in Hawaii was supported by Tentikyo Ichiretsukai, a scholarship organization ofTenrikyo, one of the oldest "new" religions in Japan. VI ABSTRACT The original question this study posed was, "How do contemporary Christian Hawaiians identify themselves between being Hawaiian and being Christian?" This hypothetical question is fundamentally oriented in the present. In order to find better answers to the question, however, a broader historical framework is indispensable. Therefore, the dissertation is composed of two focuses: the past and the present of Hawaiian Christianity - mainly in the Congregationalist tradition. They are separated not only by time and target of investigation but also in the analytical methods used for approaching targets. However, I attempt to present them in such a manner as to make interpretation of the past and the present resonate. In the historical study of this dissertation, I investigate how Hawaiians incorporated Christianity in the latter halfof the 19th century and how Hawaiian culture functioned in the process ofincorporation. By locating two dissident Hawaiian Christian movements within a broader social context of the colonial condition, I aim to describe how Hawaiians were dealing with Christianity. Although their results were different, leaders ofthe two movements attempted to seize the initiative and establish sovereignty in the church. They wanted to establish a real church for Hawaiians. In the study of contemporary Hawaiian Christianity, I investigate how Christian Hawaiians are constructing their identity and faith. Through examining their narratives on how they deal with Hawaiian traditions and Christianity, I show how their identity and faith are diversely constructed but loosely unified under the problem that originally brings about diversity. I also point out that Christian Hawaiians are facing difficulty in the process of establishing Hawaiian Christianity because of the post-colonial condition, in which Hawaiian-ness (a symbolic complex of Hawaiian history, culture and identity) is competitively represented and has never had a fixed unitary meaning. vn By juxtaposing the past and present ofHawaiian Christianity, I argue that Hawaiian-ness can serve not only as a problem but also as a catalyst when constructing Hawaiian Christian faith in the present. As a post-colonial problem, the relation between culture and faith becomes a significant issue for Christian Hawaiians, who desire to make Christianity Hawaiian. VlIl TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v ABSTRACT vii LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Initial Questions I The Construction of Hawaiian Christianity 2 Previous Studies ofHawaiian Christianity 5 Theory, Methods and Outline 8 The Beginning 11 CHAPTER 2. CULTURAL CONSTRUCTIONISM RECONSIDERED IN THE PACIFIC 15 Introduction 15 Anthropological Theories ofCultural Identity 17 Anthropologists and Fourth World Peoples: From a Hawaiian Case 21 Politics, Tradition and Academe: From Australian Cases 26 Texts, Readers and Realities 32 Concluding Remarks 37 CHAPTER 3. HAWAIIAN CHRISTIANITY FROM THE LATE 19TH TO THE EARLY 20TH CENTURy 43 Introduction 43 The Beginning of the Hawaiian Missions 47 Social Changes Surrounding the Congregational Churches 51 Demographic Changes 51 Influx ofOther Christian Denominations 58 The Old System Disappears 62 Foundation ofNon-Hawaiian Churches and Language Shift from Hawaiian to English 63 IX Overthrow ofthe Hawaiian Monarchy 69 Revival ofTraditional Religion 72 Lingering Idolatry and Resurging Kahuna 72 Kahuna in the Eyes ofCongregational Ministers 76 Concluding Remarks 82 CHAPTER 4. DISSIDENT HAWAllAN CHRISTIAN MOVEMENTS IN THE LATE 19TH CENTURY 90 Introduction 90 Kaona Insurrection 95 A Sign ofthe Incident 95 An Outbreak 100 The End ofthe Incident 103 Doctrine and Activity of Kaona 106 The Birth of Hoomana Naauao 114 "Jubilee Book" 114 The Mission Work ofPoloailehua 116 The Conversion ofKekipi 119 Toward the Establishment ofan Independent Church 122 Early Doctrine and Activity of Hoomana Naauao 125 Hawaiian Culture Seen in the "Jubilee Book" 129 Concluding Remarks 130 CHAPTER 5. THE MAKING OF HAWAIIAN IDENTITY AND THE PRESENT SOCIa-CULTURAL CONDITION 140 Introduction 140 Problematics ofEthnicity 144 History of "Hawaiian" as an Ethnic Group 154 Hawaiian Cultural and Political Situations 162 Questionnaire Survey Analysis 168 Culture, Blood and Land: Ethnic Identity ofHawaiian Students 168 Between Two Traditions: Christianity and Hawaiian Traditional Religion 174 Religious Affiliation 174 x 'Aumakua 176 Ho'okupu 178 Identity Composition ofHawaiian Students 181 Concluding Remarks 188 CHAPTER 6. CHRISTIAN HAWAIIAN IDENTITIES THROUGH THEIR NARRATIVES OF HAWAllAN TRADITIONS 198 Introduction 198 Severing 'Aumiikua 202 'Aumiikua as Guardian Angels 207 Dichotomizing Kahuna into Good and Evil 213 Appropriating Hula in Hawaiian Churches 218 What is the Acceptable Hula for Christian Hawaiians? 224 Concluding Remarks 230 CHAPTER 7. BEING HAWAllAN AND BEING CHRISTIAN: THE ENTANGLED CONDITION OF HAWAllAN CHRISTIANITy 239 Introduction 239 Syncretism and Multi-Ethnicity 242 Feeling of Cultural Loss and Recovery 248 Reinterpretation and Relocation of Hawaiian Tradition 252 Hawaiian Tradition and Christianity 258 Culture and Faith 267 Concluding Remarks 271 CHAPTER 8. CLOSING REMARKS 274 APPENDIX A. A QUESTIONNAIRE SHEET 278 APPENDIX B. A LETTER FROM KAONA'S FOLLOWERS PUBLISHED IN THE PCA (1868/10/24) 282 GLOSSARy 285 REFERENCES 291 XI LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Religious Affiliation of Hawaiian Students 175 2. Affinity with the 'Aumakua (High School Respondents Only) 177 3. Types of the 'Aumakua 177 4. Offering the Ho 'okupu (High School Respondents Only) 178 5. Perception ofHawaiian Identity 182 xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Population of Hawaiians (1778-1990) 52 2. Population by Islands (1850-1970) 54 3. The HEA Membership: Four Island Associations (1831-1962) 55 4. Religious Affiliations ofHawaiians (1853 and 1896) 59 5. The HEA Membership: Hawaiian and Non-Hawaiian Churches (1831-1962) 65 6. "When the Kahunas Get Diplomas" 77 7. A Portrait of John Kekipi Maia [1831-1919] 115 8. A Portrait of John Hawelu Poloailehua [1838-] 117 9-a. Perception of Hawaiian Identity (4 High Schools) 183 9-b. Perception of Hawaiian Identity: Compared between Christian and Non-Christian Students (4 High Schools) 183 lO-a.