The reluctant warlord Historical introduction rs of Marcus A e u s With Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Empire was for the fi rst time ruled by two emperors, both adoptive sons of the late Emperor Antoninus Pius (r. AD 138–161). Marcus had selected his nine-year-younger adoptive brother Lucius Verus to be his co-emperor. The two in- dividuals could not have been more different in character. While the ascetic Marcus, whose main interest was philosophy, had been taught to “avoid the ways of the rich” (Meditations 1.3.), critics declaimed against Lucius’ luxurious lifestyle and his habits. By Robert Heiligers state Armenia in the autumn of AD 161. The two imperial brothers acted in unison and the Senate arcus was born on 26 April 121. thought it advantageous that one could stay at After his father died in 129, he home and take care of the public administration was adopted by his paternal while the other one dealt with critical situations grandfather, Marcus Annius at the front. Upon becoming emperor, Marcus MVerus. At the age of eighteen, Marcus served as took the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Au- consul under Emperor Antoninus Pius. He mar- gustus. ried Antoninus’ daughter Faustina and would No soldier by upbringing, experience, or na- have at least twelve children with her. The only ture, Marcus nevertheless spent more time away son to survive childhood was Commodus, who on campaign than any of his predecessors. The would later succeed Marcus. In 140, Marcus reign of Marcus Aurelius marked the end of a was made consul again, with Emperor Antoni- long period of relative peace in the second cen- nus Pius as his colleague. As the heir apparent, tury AD. The Emperor faced fi nancial problems Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the caused by frontier wars in Parthia in the east. In equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus the west, invading Germanic tribes along the Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and as such offi - borders made incursions across the Rhine and cially became the designated next emperor. across the Danube. He also had to deal with a This large equestrian statue of fl ood that engulfed Rome, causing a severe fam- Marcus Aurelius. This bronze The reign of Marcus Aurelius ine. To make matters even worse, a virulent dis- statue was originally gilded; When Emperor Antoninus Pius died in 161 AD, ease – probably an extremely contagious kind some fragments of gold leaf are Marcus had spent 23 years learning the ropes of smallpox – was brought back from the east still attached to the surface. His of the administrative structures within the Ro- after the Roman interventions in Parthia. This re- extended hand suggests that he is man Empire. The Senate had planned to confi rm sulted in signifi cant loss of life as well as enor- about to address a crowd. The re- Marcus alone as Pius’ successor, but he had re- mous losses in tax income. The disease reached naissance sculptor Michelangelo fused to take offi ce unless his adoptive brother Rome in 166 and would eventually kill off an moved it to the Campidoglio at Lucius Verus received the same status and pow- estimated fi fteen to twenty million people (25 to Rome. It is currently on display ers as himself. Even though the concept of dual 30 percent of the empire’s population). Due to inside the Conservatory Museum emperorship was a novelty, the Senate actually sheer lack of manpower, Marcus had the deplet- to protect it from the elements. welcomed the situation. Rome’s archenemies, ed ranks of the army supplemented with slaves, © Karwansaray Publishers the Parthians, had just invaded the Roman vassal bandits, gladiators, and barbarians. 6 Ancient Warfare VII-6 AW VII.6 jan14b.indd 6 05-01-14 19:06 The reluctant warlord The Parthians Obii, Marcomanni, and Quadi invaded Pan- In autumn of 161, the Parthians invaded Arme- nonia. Local forces defeated the invaders with nia and Syria, subsequently beating the armies relative ease. But two years later, a large force of the Armenian governor Severianus and of the of Marcomanni and Quadi achieved a smashing governor of Syria, Attidius Cornelianus. Lucius victory against an army of 20,000 Romans near Verus left Rome in the summer of 162 and re- Carnutum (40km west of modern Vienna). While conquered Armenia in 163. He moved on to the larger part of their host moved southwards Mesopotamia, attacked Parthia and destroyed towards Italy, the remainder ravaged Noricum. the city of Seleucia in 165. Avidius Cassius burnt As the smallpox was ravaging the Empire, down the palace at the Parthian capital of Cte- the punitive expedition against the invading siphon, located directly across the Tigris. King tribes was postponed until AD 168. When the Vologaeses IV sued for peace and was forced Emperors established their headquarters at Aq- to cede northern Mesopotamia to the Romans, uileia, the Marcomanni withdrew. Heading who deployed units in the cities of Nisibis and back to Rome, Lucius Verus suffered a stroke Singara. Murray Dahm’s contribution discusses and died three days later at the age of 38. Mar- Lucius Verus’ campaigns in Parthia in detail. cus now returned to Rome alone to oversee his brother’s funeral. With the Emperors gone, the Invasions Marcomanni razed Opitergium (modern Oder- Portrait of Lucius Verus, who led When a great number of Roman troops were zo) and besieged Aquileia. By the end of 171, a campaign against the Parthians withdrawn from the Limes in 162 in order to the Romans forced them to sign a treaty promis- to reconquer Armenia in AD 163. deal with the Parthian invasion of Armenia, ing they would leave a 7km-wide security-zone Currently in the Antakya Archae- German tribes could now more easily cross the along the river unsettled. For details, refer to Sid- ological Museum. Roman border. In late 165, 6,000 Langobardi, ney Dean’s contribution to this issue. © Livius.Org © Michael Schmeling Ancient Warfare VII-6 7 AW VII.6 jan14b.indd 7 05-01-14 19:06 The reluctant warlord In the meantime, the Vandals and the Sarma- Change of military tactics tian Iazyges had invaded Dacia, while, farther to To engage invading tribes simultaneously at the east, the Sarmatian Costoboci had crossed different points on the border, smaller detach- the Danube, ravaging Thrace and Macedonia. ments (vexillationes) were created to move to Only 20km from Athens, they plundered and critical areas. However, these fl ying squads did destroyed the temple of the Eleusinian Mysteries. not smoothly interact, which resulted in severe Then, in 173, Didius Julianus, the commander organizational problems. In the Late Roman Em- of the Rhine frontier, had to repel another inva- pire the answer to this dilemma was the creation sion of the Chatti and the Hermunduri, while the of the vexillationes comitatenses, reservists that Chauci raided the shoreline of Gallia Belgica. were stationed behind the front lines and who The Iazyges were defeated in several battles. could be deployed where needed. See also this Meanwhile, the Quadi revolted again. The war issue’s contribution by Simon MacDowall. moved west and, in AD 174, the Quadi had to The Marcomannic wars had exposed the confront the Romans in their homelands (mod- weakness of Rome’s northern frontier, and ern Slovakia). After their subjugation, garrisons henceforth, sixteen of the 33 Roman legions were installed throughout their territory and they would be stationed along the Danube and the An engraved gem depicting Mar- were forced to surrender hostages and provide Rhine. For the Germanic tribes, however, the cus Aurelius and his wife, Fausti- auxiliary contingents for the Roman army. It was Marcomannic wars were only the prelude of the na the Younger. Currently on dis- during these campaigns that Marcus Aurelius great invasions that would eventually disassem- play in the Baden-Württemberg started writing his philosophical work Medita- ble and end the Western Roman Empire in the State Museum of Archaeology in tions (see Eugenia Russell’s contribution). fourth and fi fth centuries. Stuttgart. In 175, Roman troops crossed the Danube On 17 March 180, the Emperor died, prob- © Livius.Org again to fi nally subjugate the Iazyges. Although ably at Vindobona (modern Vienna), either as a Marcus was ill (which would give rise to ru- result of the smallpox, or of cancer. His ashes mours that the emperor had died), he decided to were entombed in Hadrian’s Mausoleum – the join the campaign. The enemy suffered a severe present Castel Sant’Angelo in Rome – and in his defeat, surrendering 100,000 Roman captives honour, the Senate erected a column in the cur- and providing a contingent of 8,000 horsemen, rent Piazza Colonna; see Michael Taylor’s contri- of whom 500 were immediately dispatched to bution to this issue. 0 Britain. Traces of these forces have been found in the Roman cavalry fort at Chesters on Hadrian’s Robert Heiligers is an ardent amateur histori- Wall, amongst others. When, in 177, the Quadi an. He has been interested in ancient and early and Marcomanni rebelled, Marcus Aurelius medieval history for over forty years. He is a went to Carnuntum and moved against the Mar- regular contributor to Slingshot, the magazine comanni. In 179, a decisive battle took place of the Society of Ancients. against the Quadi near modern Trencín in Slova- kia. The Quadi were chased westwards, deeper into Greater Germania, where another decisive victory was achieved against them. Further reading The revolt of Avidius Cassius • Anthony R. Birley, Marcus Aurelius: A Bi- In 175, the false news of the death of the ailing ography (New York 2001).