Robert-Falcon Ouellette Evaluating Aboriginal Curricula using a Cree-Métis Perspective with a regard towards Indigenous knowledge Thèse présentée à la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales de l'Université Laval dans le cadre du programme de doctorat en anthropologie pour l'obtention du grade de philosophiae doctor (Ph.D.) Département d‘anthropologie Faculté des sciences sociales Université Laval Québec 2011 © Robert-Falcon Ouellette 2011 Summary There has been much development in Aboriginal curriculum guides across Turtle Island since the 1970s by education authorities. This development has been due to a need by many Aboriginal communities to decolonize their education systems. After all this development there is now a need to determine the direction this decolonization has taken and how far the process has progressed. To do this an analysis was conducted of the curriculum currently in use. Three different evaluation models were developed using an Indigenous philosophy to help assess current Aboriginal curricula in relation to an Indigenous philosophical and holistic worldview. To this end, five subgoals were set forth: 1. define a pan-Aboriginal philosophy of Indigenous knowledge; 2. review the history of Aboriginal education; 3. determine the objectives of Aboriginal education; 4. construct multiple frameworks to assess Aboriginal curricula; and 5. analyze over 48 Aboriginal curricula currently in use by Canadian Aboriginal education authorities. This research aims to improve the quality of education for Aboriginal peoples, in response to concerns raised by the Canadian federal government and more importantly by Aboriginal Canadians. Among the latter, multiple debates are going on about the type of education they wish for their children. Should it be integrationist, or Indigenous? Who should control the Aboriginal education system: the federal government, the provincial governments, or Aboriginal organizations (and which one and at what level)? Education is a battleground for larger political projects by both the dominant society and the dominated society. The underlying issues are power, agency, societal structures, survival, money, decolonization, and ongoing colonization. Long-term change is needed, and the conflict will be over the nature of this change. Will it be the Western worldview or the Indigenous one? 2 Resume Depuis les années 70, de nombreux changements se sont produits sur l'Ile de la Tortue concernant le curriculum des Autochtones. Ces changements sont survenus au sein des communautés des Premières Nations afin de décoloniser leur système éducatif. Mais, il est temps maintenant de dresser un bilan de la direction prise par ces systèmes afin de déterminer l'étendue du progrès. Pour ce faire, une étude a été menée sur le curriculum actuellement utilisé. Trois différents modèles d'évaluation basés sur la philosophie autochtone et une vision holistique de l'éducation ont été utilisés. À cette fin, cinq champs de travail ont été choisis: 1. définir le savoir des Premières Nations selon la philosophie pan-autochtone 2. Réviser l'histoire de l'éducation autochtone 3. Déterminer les objectifs de l'éducation autochtone 4. Mettre sur pieds des critères d'évaluation des curricula autochtones 5. Analyser plus de 48 curricula autochtones présentement utilisés par les autorités autochtones du Canada En réponse aux demandes du gouvernement fédéral et des autochtones du Canada, cette recherche a pour but d'améliorer la qualité de l'éducation offerte aux Premières Nations. De nombreux débats touchant le type d'éducation que les Premières Nations souhaitent offrir à leurs enfants sont présentement en cours. L'éducation se doit-elle d'être intégrationiste ou bien aborigène? Qui devrait contrôler le système éducationnel: le gouvernement fédéral, le gouvernement provincial ou des organisations autochtones? L'éducation est le cheval de bataille des grands projets politiques, qu'ils soient ceux de la société dominante ou de la société dominée. Contrôle, «agency», les structures sociales, survie, argent, décolonisation et colonisation sont des éléments qui affect l‘éducation des autochtones. Un changement durable est nécessaire, mais il ne se fera pas sans quelques conflits sur la nature de ce changement. Sera-t-il occidental ou bien autochtone de nature? 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS INDEX OF IMAGES, CHARTS AND GRAPHS .......................................................................................7 DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................................9 EAST: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 10 Initial Thoughts .................................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND METHOD................................................................................................ 13 1.1 Research Methodology: Procedure and Questions .................................................................... 22 1.2 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................... 36 SOUTH: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE ................................................................................................. 40 CHAPTER 2. GENERAL BACKGROUND OF ABORIGINAL EDUCATION .......................................................... 41 2.1 Indigenous Knowledge ............................................................................................................... 43 2.2 Holistic and Religious Knowledge ............................................................................................. 45 2.3 IK and Anthropology .................................................................................................................. 49 2.4 Worldview ................................................................................................................................... 54 2.5 Creation ...................................................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER 3. COLONIALISM AND DECOLONIZATION ................................................................................... 62 3.1 Colonialism and Indigenous Knowledge .................................................................................... 66 3.2 Colonialism and Identity ............................................................................................................ 70 3.3 Colonialism and Legitimacy ....................................................................................................... 72 3.4 The Land ..................................................................................................................................... 73 3.5 Power and Place ........................................................................................................................ 79 3.6 Power, Respect, Reciprocity ....................................................................................................... 83 3.7 Respect in the Transmission of IK .............................................................................................. 84 3.8 Sharing ....................................................................................................................................... 85 3.9 Spirituality in Schooling and Responsibility ............................................................................... 87 3.10 Language and Orality ............................................................................................................ 91 3.11 Oral Tradition ........................................................................................................................ 98 CHAPTER 4. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF ABORIGINAL EDUCATION IN THE POLITICAL ENTITY OF CANADA 103 4.1 Treaties and Education ............................................................................................................. 109 4.2 Education Pre-White Paper, 1969 ............................................................................................ 115 4.3 White Paper 1969 ..................................................................................................................... 119 4.4 Curriculum of Indian Residential Schools ................................................................................ 128 4.5 Continuing Structural Violence of Indian Residential Schools ................................................ 141 4.6 International Indigenous Rights in Education .......................................................................... 148 4.7 Control of Education ................................................................................................................ 151 4.8 Tradition and Education: Towards a Vision of Our Future ..................................................... 162 4.9 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples ............................................................................... 164 CHAPTER 5. JURISDICTION IN ABORIGINAL EDUCATION .......................................................................... 166 5.1 First Nations Jurisdiction over Education in British Columbia Act and Other Cases: Independence, Integration, or Assimilation ....................................................................................... 177 5.2 First Nations