The Behavior Analyst 1984, 7, 101-1 19 No. 2 (Fall) The Case for Praxics Robert Epstein Northeastern University and Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies Since the early 1 900s a variety of names has been proposed for the scientific study ofbehavior, but none has come into general use. "Praxics," a recent entry, is defensible on several grounds. "Behaviorism," on the other hand, is the name of a school of philosophy. Though praxics has roots in behaviorism, the term "behaviorism" should not be applied to praxics. Confusion between the science and the philosophy has retarded the growth ofthe science immeasurably. Its growth has also been impeded by its association with psychology, which is still primarily the study of mind. Efforts are underway to establish praxics as an independent field. It was not a wholly TERMS satisfactory namefor afield. There have been several attempts to -B. F. Skinner (1979, p. 331), name the study of behavior in general on "the experimental analysis and the experimental analysis of behav- of behavior" ior in particular (Epstein, 1984a). Most ofthese efforts have failed. Two-"ethol- "Praxics"-a blend of "physics" and ogy" and "praxiology"-have been par- "praxis" (irpa&ts), the Greek for "action" tially successful in certain domains. or "behavior"-is a term I and others now use for the experimental analysis of behavior and related disciplines. We de- Ethology fine it as the study of behavior. We call The term "ethology" has two different, one who studies behavior a "praxist," though closely related, modem usages. It after "chemist." In this essay I present was defined by Lorenz and Tinbergen as (a) the case for the use of the terms, (b) the study of instinct (e.g., Tinbergen, the case for drawing a clear distinction 1951). It was a specialty within biology, between praxics and behaviorism, and (c) concerned primarily with innate behav- the case for the separation ofpraxics and ior patterns in non-human animals in the psychology. Most ofthe arguments I will natural habitats. By the 1960s it had make have, it turns out, already been evolved into a more comprehensive field, made, and hence much of this essay is defined as "the biology ofbehavior" (Eibl- historical. Eibesfeldt, 1970) or "the biological study of behavior" (Tinbergen, 1963). For many years there was little communi- cation between ethologists and experi- mental psychologists and none to speak I thank P. T. Andronis, C. D. Cheney, R. E. Crow, J. Donahoe, P. Harzem, J. M. Johnston, F. S. Kel- of between ethologists and those who ler, T. V. Layng, B. F. Skinner, and T. Zane for worked in the operant tradition. Though comments on an early draft of this paper, as well exchanges are now common (e.g., Fan- as I. Iversen, H. Pennypacker, and G. E. Zuriff for tino & Logan, 1979; Nevin, 1973), ethol- stimulating discussions. I am also grateful to I. Iver- still remains somewhat narrow in its sen for calling my attention to the Kuo article and ogy to J. Goldstein, D. Kolker, K. Marcus, and M. Mar- focus: Ethologists still study non-human sted for assistance in library research. For reprints animals for the most part; they rely al- of this article write to Robert Epstein, Cambridge most exclusively on field studies and are Center for Behavioral Studies, 11 Ware Street, skeptical of laboratory research on be- Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. Correspondence to: Cambridge Center for Be- havior; they are interested mainly in feral havioral Studies, 11 Ware Street, Cambridge, MA animals and are critical ofthe use oflab- 02138. oratory-bred or domesticated animals; 101 102 ROBERT EPSTEIN and so on.' "Ethology" is not an appro- of behavior. According to Keller (per- pnate label for the experimental analysis sonal communication, October 1983), of behavior or the many other scientific he first heard it in a course he had as a fields that are concerned with the deter- graduate student at Harvard in 1928. His minants of behavior. instructor, Dwight Chapman, used the A prior use ofthe term was somewhat term jokingly, and Keller, too, has used more comprehensive and closer to at least it somewhat hesitatingly ever since. It has some characterizations of modern psy- not been adopted by operant condition- chology. In Book Six ofhis classic A Sys- ers, nor by biologists. But it has been used tem of Logic, published in 1843, John fairly widely in other domains-philos- Stuart Mill proposed "ethology" as a la- ophy, education, and economics, in par- ble for what he hoped would be a new ticular- so widely that it is listed in sev- science, "the science of the formation of eral unabridged dictionaries and character." He derived the term from dictionaries ofphilosophy and behavior- "ethos" (iiOos), the Greek for "character," al science. by which he meant behavior in all of its The original OED contains no such aspects. He hoped to see the emergence listing, but the 1982 Supplement con- of a comprehensive science to supple- tains a listing 49 lines long. "Praxeolo- ment the philosophical psychology ofhis gy," "praxiology," or "praxology" (in that day, but none emerged, and the term fell order) is defined as "The study of such into disuse. The original Oxford English actions as are necessary in order to give Dictionary (henceforward, OED), which practical effect to a theory or technique; was published in installments between the science of human conduct; the sci- 1884 and 1928, gives Mill's definition, ence of efficient action." "Praxiologist" as well as two obsolete definitions from is defined only as "one who studies prac- the 17th and 18th centuries: the study of tical activity." The American standard, ethics, and the practice of mimicry. The Webster's Third New International Dic- 1933 supplement to the OED adds the tionary, published in 1966, defines first biological definition, the obvious "praxeology" or "praxiology" (again, in precursor to the modern usage: "The that order) simply as "the study of hu- branch of Natural History which deals man action and conduct." with an animal's actions and habits, its Many specialty dictionaries give sim- reaction to its environment." The first ilar definitions. Horace B. English's relevant usage is attributed to two zool- (1928) classic A Student's Dictionary of ogists, Parker and Haswell (1897), who Psychological Terms defines "praxiolo- defined it as the study of "the relation of gy" as "Study of the activities or move- the organism to its environment," which, ments or 'deeds' of an organism as a they said, had also been called "bio- whole; synonymous with behaviorism nomics." except in not denying the importance of mental processes." The Psychiatric Dic- Praxiology tionary (Hinsie & Campbell, 1970) dis- agrees on the last point: "Praxiology" is The history ofthe term "praxiology"- "Dunlap's term for the science ofbehav- also spelled "praxeology" -is consider- ior, which excludes the study of con- ably more complicated.2 F. S. Keller has sciousness and similar non-objective, proposed it from time to time (e.g., 1984) metaphysical concepts." Wolman's as a name for the experimental analysis (1973) Dictionary ofBehavioral Science defines it thus: "1. Psychology viewed as ' In Four Saints in Three Acts Gertrude Stein the study ofactions, and overt behavior. provided a suitable rejoinder: "Pigeons in the grass, 2.... Any normative science ... e.g., alas." education, social philosophy, ethics, etc., 2 The English term "praxis" is also common, but it will not be discussed in this essay, since most of that sets norms and goals for human ac- its applications have little or no relevance to the tions." The Dictionary ofPhilosophy and issues at hand. Religion (Reese, 1980) refers the reader CASE FOR PRAXICS 103 to an entry on Kotarbiinski, about whom Kotarbin'ski. Praxiology was taken up more will be said below. by-or perhaps reinvented by-indi- Many similar works contain no such viduals in four separate fields. The Polish entry, including the 1977 International philosopher Tadeusz Kotarbin'ski (e.g., Encyclopedia of Psychiatry, Psychology, 1965) defines it as "the general theory of Psychoanalysis, and Neurology (this is efficient action"-for "action" read "la- significant, since Wolman was the edi- bor" or "work"-which, he says, derives tor), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy from or is at least harmonious with such (1967), The Encyclopedia of Psycho- diverse works as Marx's Capital, Mill's analysis (1968), The Dictionary of Psy- Utilitarianism, Machiavelli's II Principe, chology and Related Fields (1971), The and Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Though Dictionary ofthe History ofIdeas (1973), they didn't use the term, he says, George A Concise Encyclopedia of Psychiatry Herbert Mead, Talcott Parsons, and (1977), A Dictionary of Philosophy Georges Hostelet were all concerned with (1979), The Encyclopedia of Psychiatry praxiology, which he describes as fol- (1981), and the Dictionary ofPhilosophy lows: These notwithstand- (1983). omissions The praxiologist concerns himself with finding the ing, the term clearly has some legitimacy. broadest possible generalizations ofa technical na- How did it get it? ture. His objective is the technique ofgood, efficient A number of scholars assert that the work as such, indications and warnings important term originated with the London author for all work which is intended to achieve maximum and physician, Charles A. Mercier, who effectiveness. (p. 1) lived from 1852 to 1919. In his 1911 This use of "praxiology" does not rule book, Conduct and Its Disorders, he out mentalism or teleology, and the field wrote: "Apart from the general advan- Kotarbiinski describes is neither experi- tage ... of having a systematic knowl- mental nor data based. Chapter 14 ofhis edge ofconduct as a whole; there are cer- 1965 book is entitled "Mental Activity" tain special advantages to be derived from and reads in part: a study of Praxiology, if I may so term ..