Notes World’s Cities at a Glance 1. United Nations (UN), “Urban Population at Mid-Year by Major Area, Region and Country, 1950-2050,” World Urbanization Prospects: 2014 Revision (New York: 2014). 2. UN, “Percentage of Population at Mid-Year Residing in Urban Areas by Major Area, Region and Country, 1950–2050,” World Urbanization Prospects: 2014 Revision. 3. UN, “Average Annual Rate of Change of the Urban Population, by Major Area, Region, and Country, 1950– 2050,” World Urbanization Prospects: 2014 Revision. 4. UN, “Number of Cities Classified by Size Class of Urban Settlement, Major Area, Region and Country, 1950– 2030,” World Urbanization Prospects, 2014 Revision. 5. Stefan Bringezu, Assessing Global Land Use: Balancing Consumption with Sustainable Supply, A Report of the Working Group on Land and Soils of the International Resource Panel (Paris: UN Environment Programme (UNEP), Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE), 2014). 6. Karen C. Seto et al., “A Meta-Analysis of Global Urban Land Expansion,” PLoS ONE 6, no. 8 (2011); Bringezu, Assessing Global Land Use; Joan Clos, “Foreword,” in Mark Swilling et al., City-Level Decoupling: Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions, A Report of the Working Group on Cities of the Interna- tional Resource Panel (Paris: UNEP, 2013). 7. Richard Dobbs et al., Urban World: Mapping the Economic Power of Cities (New York: McKinsey Global Insti- tute, March 2011). 8. Richard Dobbs et al., Urban World: Cities and the Rise of the Consuming Class (New York: McKinsey Global Institute, 2012). 9. Swilling et al., City-Level Decoupling; UN-Habitat, State of the World’s Cities Report 2010/2011 (Nairobi: 2010). GNP is an economic statistic that is equal to GDP plus any income earned by residents from overseas investments minus income earned within the domestic economy by overseas residents. 10. Achim Steiner, “Foreword,” in Swilling et al., City-Level Decoupling. 11. Swilling et al., City-Level Decoupling. 12. Dobbs et al., Urban World: Cities and the Rise of the Consuming Class. 13. Christopher A. Kennedy et al., “Energy and Material Flows of Megacities,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 19 (2015): 5,985–90; UN, “Toward Sustainable Cities,” Chapter 3 in World Economic and Social Survey 2013 (New York: 2013). 14. Ibid.; UN-Habitat, Streets as Public Spaces and Drivers of Urban Prosperity (Nairobi: 2013). 355 Worldwatch Institute, State of the World : Can a City Be Sustainable?, DOI 10.5822/ 978-1-61091-756-8, © 2016 by Worldwatch Institute. 356 Notes 15. UN, “Toward Sustainable Cities”; World Health Organization (WHO), Why Urban Health Matters (Geneva: 2010). 16. WHO, “7 Million Premature Deaths Annually Linked to Air Pollution,” press release (Geneva: March 25, 2014); WHO, “Household Air Pollution and Health,” fact sheet no. 292 (Geneva: March 2014). Chapter 1. Imagining a Sustainable City 2. Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project, Pathways to Deep Decarbonization: 2015 Report (Paris: Sustainable Development Solutions Network and Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations, December 2015); Jörgen Larsson and Lisa Bolin, Low-carbon Gothenburg 2.0: Technological Potentials and Lifestyle Changes (Gothenburg, Sweden: Mistra Urban Futures, 2014); Jennie Moore and William E. Rees, “Getting to One-Planet Living,” in Worldwatch Institute, State of the World 2013: Is Sustainability Still Possible? (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2013). Chapter 2. Cities in the Arc of Human History: A Materials Perspective 1. This rough estimate reflects vagueness regarding the transition from villages to cities and the gradual pace of the spread of cities. Jericho, for example, is estimated to be 11,000 years old, while cities in Mesopotamia are esti- mated to have arisen around 7,500 years ago. Thus, 10,000 years is a rough, rounded approximation for the original rise of cities. The figure of 12,000 is from Helmut Haberl et al., “A Socio-Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainabil- ity? Challenges for Another Great Transformation,“ Sustainable Development 19, no. 1 (2011): 1–14. 2. Mark Swilling et al., City-Level Decoupling. Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transi- tions A Report of the Working Group on Cities of the International Resource Panel (Paris: United Nations Envi- ronment Programme, 2013); Haberl et al., “A Socio-Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainability?” 3. Leslie White, The Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization (Clinton Corners, NY: Percheron Press, 2005). 4. Rolf Peter Sieferle, “Sustainability in a World History Perspective,” in Brigitta Benzing and Bernd Herrmann, eds., Exploitation and Overexploitation in Societies Past and Present. IUAES-Intercongress 2001 Goettingen (Mün- ster, Germany: LIT Publishing House, 2000), 123–42. Box 2–1 from Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Fridolin Kraus- mann, and Irene Pailua, “A Sociometabolic Reading of the Anthropocene: Modes of Subsistence, Population Size and Human Impact on Earth,” The Anthropocene Review 1, no. 1 (2014): 8–13. Figure 2–1 from Sieferle, “Sustain- ability in a World History Perspective.” 5. Two to four times from Fischer-Kowalski, Krausmann, and Pailua, “A Sociometabolic Reading of the Anthro- pocene”; 0.01 percent from Marina Fischer-Kowalski and Helmut Haberl, Socioecological Transitions and Global Change: Trajectories of Social Metabolism and Land Use (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2007); passive solar existence from Rolf Peter Sieferle, The Subterranean Forest: Energy Systems and the Industrial Revolution, translated from the German by Michael P. Osman (Cambridge, U.K.: White Horse Press, 2001); Haberl et al., “A Socio-­ Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainability?” 6. Richard Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (New York: Basic Books, 2009); Lewis Mum- ford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1961), 10. 7. Box 2–2 from the following sources: Tim de Chant, “Hunter-Gatherers Show Human Populations Are Hard- Wired for Density,” Scientific American blog, August 16, 2011; Marcus J. Hamilton et al., “Nonlinear Scaling of Space Use in Human Hunter-gatherers,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, vol. 11 (2007): 4,765– 69; Michael Batty and Peter Ferguson, “Defining City Size,” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 38, no. 5 (2011): 753–56. Notes | 357 8. Sieferle, The Subterranean Forest; Mumford, The City in History. 9. Haberl et al., “A Socio-Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainability?” 10. Fischer-Kowalski, Krausmann, and Pailua, “A Sociometabolic Reading of the Anthropocene”; Table 2–1 from Haberl et al., “A Socio-Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainability?” 11. Vaclav Smil, Energy in Nature and Society. General Energetics of Complex Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008); Fridolin Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition: Past and Present Metabolic Profiles and Their Future Trajectories,” Journal of Industrial Ecology 12, no. 5–6 (2008): 637–56. 12. Figure 2–2 from Kees Klein Goldewijk, Arthur Beusen, and Peter Janssen, “Long-term Dynamic Modeling of Global Population and Built-up Area in a Spatially Explicit Way: HYDE 3.1,” The Holocene 20, no. 4 (2010): 565–73; data available at ftp://ftp.pbl.nl/hyde/supplementary/population/table_4.xls; 2050 projection from United Nations, World Population Prospects (New York: 2015). 13. Mumford, The City in History, 37. 14. Table 2–2 from Ian Morris, Social Development (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University, October 2010). 15. Mumford, The City in History, 33. 16. Ibid., 34. 17. Thorkild Jacobsen and Robert M. Adams, “Salt and Silt in Ancient Mesopotamian Agriculture,” Science 128, no. 3334 (1958): 1,251–58; Haberl et al., “A Socio-Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainability?” 18. Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 19. Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Fridolin Krausmann, and Barbara Smetschka, “Modelling Transport as a Key Con- straint to Urbanisation in Pre-industrial Societies,” in Simron Singh et al., Long Term Socio-Ecological Research: Studies in Society-Nature Interactions Across Spatial and Temporal Scales (New York: Springer, 2014); Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 20. Table 2–3 from Morris, Social Development; Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 21. Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 22. Mumford, The City in History, 359. 23. Ibid., 408. 24. “Subway,” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/technology/subway, updated March 13, 2015; “Sky- scraper,” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/technology/skyscraper, updated April 22, 2015. 25. Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 26. Fridolin Krausmann et al., “Growth in Global Materials Use, GDP and Population During the 20th Century,” Ecological Economics 68, no. 10 (2009): 2,696–2,705. Table 2–4 from Haberl et al., “A Socio-Metabolic Transition Toward Sustainability?” 27. Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 28. Figure 2–3 from Tertius Chandler, Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census (Lewiston, NY: Saint David’s University Press, 1987). 29. Krausmann et al., “The Global Sociometabolic Transition.” 30. Fischer-Kowalski, Krausmann, and Pailua, “A Sociometabolic Reading of the Anthropocene”; Peter Victor, “Questioning Economic Growth,” Nature 468 (November 18, 2010): 370–71. 358 Notes 31. Table 2–5 from Fischer-Kowalski, Krausmann, and Pailua, “A Sociometabolic