CONFLICT OF NATIONAL IDENTITY IN SUDAN Kuel Maluil Jok Academic Dissertation to be publicly discussed, by due permission of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Helsinki, in auditorium XII, on 31 March 2012 at 10 o‟clock. University of Helsinki, Department of World Cultures Kuel Jok Conflict of National Identity in Sudan Copyright © Kuel Jok 2012 ISBN 978-952-10-7919-1 (Print) ISBN 978-952-10-7891-0 (PDF) UNIGRAFIA Helsinki University Print Helsinki 2012 ii ABSTRACT This study addresses the contemporary conflict of national identity in Sudan between the adherents of „Islamic nationalism‟ and „customary secularism‟. The former urge the adoption of a national constitution that derives its civil and criminal laws from Sharia (Islamic law) and Arabic be the language of instruction in national institutions of Sudan. The group argues that the intertwined model of the Islamic-Arab cultural identity accelerates assimilation of the heterogeneous African ethnic and religious diversities in Sudan into a homogeneous national identity defining Sudan as an Islamic-Arab state. The latter demand the adoption of secular laws, which must be derived from the diverse set of customary laws and equal opportunities for all African languages beside Arabic and English. The group claims that the adoption of the Islamic laws and Arabic legalises the treatment of the citizens in the country in terms of religion and race and that implies racism and discrimination. In this way, the adherents of the Islamic nationalism imposed the Islamic-Arab model. In reaction, the Muslims and the non-Muslim secularists resort to violence as an alternative model of resistance. In pursuance of war, the Islamists declared Jihad against the secularists in Nuba Mountains, South Blue Nile (Ingessana) and adopt the racial war in Darfur. In this region, the janjaweed (armed Arab militias) in Darfur fight inclusively the insurgents and the indigenous African Muslims in Darfur in equal terms. This form of war has caused a humanitarian disaster in this region. The method of the research is qualitative and its main primary source material was based on a survey conducted among students of five universities in Sudan. Prepared and organised questionnaires in English and Arabic were given to five hundred students. Participant observation, interviews and relevant secondary sources were also used. The findings of the study indicate that every religion and culture in Sudan provides a set of regulations which promote political ethics of cultural and religious diversities as well as equal distribution of power and national wealth. The new emerging phenomenon that attempts to project religion as the source of human insecurity and injustice embodies some psychological and ideological orientations emanating from human nature and not the historical religions of God. It recommends the durable resolutions taking into consideration the diverse theoretical models for the formation of a nation-state, where the diversity is not discouraged; instead states apply laws which promote religious and ethnic diversities within one territorial state. The insistence of the Islamists on the application of the Islamic law and marginalisation of the non-Arab groups in Darfur, Eastern Sudan of Beja, Ingessana of South Blue Nile and Nuba Mountains threaten the territorial integrity of the state. The secession of South Sudan from the current Sudan in the internationally surpvised referendum in January 2011 was a paradigm resulting from economic and political imbalance in the former Sudan. iii ACRONYMS ACHPR African Charter on Human and People‟s Rights AL Arab League AU African Union CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement DDF Darfur Development Front DLF Darfur Liberation Front DOP Declaration of Principles DUP Democratic Unionist Party EU European Union GDP Gross Domestic Product GONU Government of National Unity GoS Government of Sudan GUN Union of the Nuba Mountains HAC Humanitarian Affairs Commission HAMAS Islamic Resistance Movement HROs Human Rights Offices HRW Human Rights Watch ICC International Criminal Court ICF Islamic Charter Front IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IGAD Intergovernmental Authority for Development IGADD Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development JEM Justice and Equality Movement MI Military Intelligence MPs Members of Parliament NANS National Alliance for National Salvation NCP National Congress party NDA National Democratic Alliance NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NIF National Islamic Front NSR National Salvation Revolution NTC National Television of Sudan OPEC Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries PAEC Parliamentary Assessment of Evaluation Commission PCP Popular Congress Party POL Public Order Law PPO Police of Public Order RCC Revolutionary Command Council iv RSG Regional Self-Government SAF Sudan Armed Forces SCC Sudan Council of Churches SCP Sudanese Communist Party SHRO Sudanese Human Rights Organisation SLA Sudan Liberation Army SLM Sudan Liberation Movement SNP Sudanese National Party SPI Sudanese Peace Initiative SPLA Sudan People‟s Liberation Army SPLM Sudan People‟s Liberation Movement SSLM South Sudan Liberation Movement SSU Sudanese Socialist Union SVTG Sudan Victims of Torture Group TGOD Transitional Government of Darfur States TMC Transitional Military Council UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNAMID United Nations/African Union Mission in Darfur UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees USA United States of America USAP Union of Sudan African Parties v vi MAP 1 Map: Sudan Courtesy International Crisis Group vii MAP 2 Ethno-linguistic map of Sudan Courtesy Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division viii CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................................iii ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................................................. iv MAP 1 ........................................................................................................................................................................ vii MAP 2 ....................................................................................................................................................................... viii CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................................................. ix INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 RESEARCH STRATEGY .................................................................................................................................................. 9 Aim of study and Researcher’s position ................................................................................................................... 9 Qualitative research...............................................................................................................................................12 Survey ...................................................................................................................................................................13 Plan, analysis and literature ...................................................................................................................................16 1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND SUDANESE CONFLICTING NATIONALISM ..........................................................23 1.1 Ethnic territorial nationalism ............................................................................................................................35 1.2 Ethnic territorial national pluralism ..................................................................................................................40 2 ORIGIN OF RACIAL EXCLUSION AND INCLUSION IN SUDAN ...................................................................................43 2.1 Project of Canal Jonglei and interpretations of its objectives .............................................................................48 2.1.1 Economic benefits and insecurity ..............................................................................................................49 2.1.2 Cultural xenophobia and ecology ..............................................................................................................50 2.2 Racism in social structures................................................................................................................................52 2.2.1 Stereotype of the ‘lost brothers’ ...............................................................................................................56 2.2.2 Logic of stereotypes..................................................................................................................................59 3 RECONSTRUCTION OF DIVERSITIES IN SUDAN .......................................................................................................61 3.1 Civilised Muslim Arabs of North Sudan and internal conflicts ............................................................................62 3.1.1 Discrimination against the Nuba ...............................................................................................................66 3.1.1.1 Resistance against marginalisation ....................................................................................................68