1 | Institute for Constitutional Advocacy & Protection Table of Contents Executive Summary .............................................................................................................. 1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 1 Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 2 Summary Chart: State Constitutional and Statutory Provisions Related to Paramilitary Activity ..................................................................................... 9 State-by-State Constitutional and Statutory Provisions Related to Paramilitary Activity .......................................................................................................... 17 Alabama ................................................................................................................................... 17 Alaska ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Arizona ..................................................................................................................................... 20 Arkansas .................................................................................................................................. 21 California ................................................................................................................................. 23 Colorado .................................................................................................................................. 25 Connecticut .............................................................................................................................. 27 Delaware .................................................................................................................................. 29 Florida ...................................................................................................................................... 30 Georgia ..................................................................................................................................... 32 Hawaii ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Idaho ......................................................................................................................................... 35 Illinois ....................................................................................................................................... 39 Indiana ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Iowa .......................................................................................................................................... 42 Kansas ...................................................................................................................................... 43 Kentucky .................................................................................................................................. 44 Louisiana .................................................................................................................................. 45 Maine ........................................................................................................................................ 46 Maryland ................................................................................................................................. 49 Massachusetts ......................................................................................................................... 50 Michigan .................................................................................................................................. 51 Minnesota ................................................................................................................................ 54 Mississippi ............................................................................................................................... 56 Prohibiting Private Armies at Public Rallies | i Missouri ................................................................................................................................... 57 Montana ................................................................................................................................... 59 Nebraska .................................................................................................................................. 60 Nevada ..................................................................................................................................... 61 New Hampshire ..................................................................................................................... 62 New Jersey ............................................................................................................................... 63 New Mexico ............................................................................................................................. 64 New York ................................................................................................................................. 67 North Carolina ........................................................................................................................ 70 North Dakota .......................................................................................................................... 72 Ohio .......................................................................................................................................... 73 Oklahoma ................................................................................................................................ 74 Oregon ...................................................................................................................................... 76 Pennsylvania ........................................................................................................................... 78 Rhode Island ........................................................................................................................... 80 South Carolina ........................................................................................................................ 82 South Dakota ........................................................................................................................... 83 Tennessee ................................................................................................................................. 84 Texas ......................................................................................................................................... 86 Utah .......................................................................................................................................... 87 Vermont ................................................................................................................................... 88 Virginia .................................................................................................................................... 89 Washington ............................................................................................................................. 92 West Virginia .......................................................................................................................... 94 Wisconsin ................................................................................................................................. 95 Wyoming ................................................................................................................................. 96 ii | Institute for Constitutional Advocacy & Protection Executive Summary Background The pitched, battle-like atmosphere and tragic violence at the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, on August 12, 2017, marked a turning point in this country and caused grief and alarm nationwide. Touted as an opportunity to protest the removal of a controversial Confederate statue, the event quickly escalated well beyond such constitutionally protected expression. Instead, private military forces transformed the college town into a virtual combat zone. Several white nationalist groups arrived outfitted in helmets and matching uniforms and deployed shields, batons, clubs, and flagpoles as weapons in skirmishes with counter-protesters that the instigating groups coordinated under centralized command structures. Meanwhile, private militia groups—many dressed in camouflage fatigues, tactical vests, helmets, and combat boots, and most bearing assault rifles—stood guard as self-designated protectors of the protesters and counter- protesters. The heavily armed presence and coordinated paramilitary activities of all of these groups not only increased the prevalence of violence at the rally, but also made it more dangerous for state and local law enforcement to maintain public safety. Moreover, the attire and behavior of some of the self- professed militia led to confusion as to who was authorized to lawfully keep the peace. On October 12, 2017, Georgetown University Law Center’s Institute for Constitutional Advocacy