“Where the Otters Play,” “Horseshoe Bay,” “Footprint” and Beyond: Spatial and Temporal Considerations of Hydroelectric Energy Production in Northern Manitoba By Ramona Neckoway A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of the University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Individual Interdisciplinary Studies University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba Copyright © 2018 by Ramona Neckoway TABLE OF CONTENTS: Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….…… v Figures …………….………………………………………………………………….. vi Tables …………………………………………………………………………………. vii Glossary of Cree terms ………………………………………………………………. viii List of Acronyms ………………..………………………………………………….... x Nanaskoomowina ……………..…………………………………………………….... xii Prologue ……………………………………………………………………...……….. 1 Some Stories………………………………………………………….………... 3 Chapter One: Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 14 Neetha .……………………………………………………….………………... 14 The Study………………………………………………………………………. 20 On the Structure of Thoughts and Ideas……………………………………….. 26 Chapter Two: Theoretical Considerations and Other Important Contexts …...…. 31 Native Studies and Indigenous Methodologies: Towards a theoretical framework………………………………………………………………...……. 41 Concerning Colonialism and “Totalization” .………………………...…….…. 48 Settler Colonialism and a Canadian Context …………………………….….… 49 On Decolonization and Indigenous Resurgence…..…………………………… 53 Regarding “the Land”………………..………………………………………… 54 Methodology……………………………….………………………………...... 58 Chapter Three: Spatial Contexts: Charting Hydro’s footprint ………….……….. 66 Hydro’s Network…………………………………………………….…….…... 71 ii The Grand Rapids Generating Station ……………….……………….…..…… 75 The Churchill River Diversion …………………………..…………..….…...... 76 Lake Winnipeg Regulation …………………………….…….……………….. 80 The Latest Installments and Proposals …………….……………………….… 82 Chapter Four: Temporal Considerations: Charting Hydro’s Agreements ……… 85 The Northern Flood Committee and The Inter-Church Task Force on Northern Flooding ……………………………………………………….…… 89 The Northern Flood Agreement ......................................................................... 92 Comprehensive Implementation Agreements …………………………...….… 98 Other Settlement Agreements …………………………………….………….... 101 From the NFA to Implementation Agreements to “Partnerships”……………... 103 Agreements Specific to Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation……………………….. 106 Energy Production in Manitoba and Beyond………………………….…….… 108 Chapter Five: On Stories and Sources ………………………………………...…… 115 “Stories” …………………………………………..………………………...… 116 Acaðoohkiwin: Wesahkecak’s Footprints…………………………………...… 119 Elders……………………………………………………..……………………. 125 The Clean Environment Commission and Public Utility Board………………. 126 “Dissidents”?………………………………………………..………….……… 129 Chapter Six: “Where the Otters play,” “Horseshoe Bay,” “Footprint” and Beyond: Perspectives and Stories from the Shorelines ………………………. 132 Towards a Hydro Consciousness…………………..……….………………….. 132 Dissident Writings from the Shorelines …………………….…...…………… 140 Cross Dimensional Realities of Hydroelectric Energy Production in Northern Manitoba………………………………………………………..… 148 iii Towards Decolonization, the Emergence of the Wa Ni Ska Tan Alliance and Becoming Cree Again …………….……..…..……………….……………….. 153 Next Steps and Looking Ahead …………………………………...……….….. 156 References: …………………………………………………………………………... 160 Tables, Figures and other Images………………………………………………. 169 APPENDIX 1: Consent Form…………………………………….……………………………………. 170 iv Abstract Manitoba Hydro is a public utility located in Manitoba and operates a vast hydroelectric network in Manitoba. Energy produced in northern Manitoba is carried south through an intricate web of transmission towers, lines and other facilities. The vast hydroelectric network throughout Manitoba cuts across many indigenous territories and the regions discussed within this study in northern Manitoba are the homelands of Ith-in-e-wuk (Cree peoples). The histories and timelines discussed as part of this study point to widespread and far-reaching implications and impacts related to energy production in northern Manitoba. A number of indigenous communities in northern Manitoba have experienced micro (individual) and macro (collective) impacts related to the production of hydro power and many Ith-in-e-wuk have experienced impacts on their lands, livelihoods and in their communities. Thus, many places, sites and histories have been greatly affected. This study aims to chart a chronology of hydroelectric energy production in northern Manitoba. It also seeks to inscribe a critical perspective concerning hydroelectric energy production in northern Manitoba and aims to carry forward the decolonizing traditions, ushered in by the Cree who became the Northern Flood Committee in the mid 1970’s. v Figures: Figure P.1: 2016 Wa Ni Ska Tan “Hydro Tour” Routes…………………………………. xix Figure P.2: 2016 Hydro Tour: Pictographs at Molson Lake……..………………………. 7 Figure P.3: 2 Mile Channel: View toward Lake Winnipeg..………………..……………. 9 Figure 3.1: Hydroelectric system in northern Manitoba……………………………….…. 63 Figure 3.2: Hydroelectric generating stations in northern Manitoba……………..………. 64 Figure 3.3: “Northern Manitoba Hydro-Electric Generation Project”……………………. 65 Figure 3.4: “Churchill River Diversion Project Location Plan”….………………………. 78 Figure 3.5: “Churchill River Diversion” project area….…………………………………. 79 Figure 3.6: “Lake Winnipeg Regulation Project – Location Plan” 1975…………………. 81 Figure 5.1: A view from the water: “footprints” near Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation……. 123 Figure 5.2: Close up view of the “footprints”………………………….…………………. 123 vi Tables: Table 3.1: List of generating Stations and/or control structures along Churchill River Diversion/Lake Winnipeg Regulation routes”…………………….……. 74 Table 4.1: Summary of types of provisions contained in the Northern Flood Agreement………………………………………………….……………….…. 94 Table 4.2: Summary of information related to Comprehensive Implementation Agreements...……………………………………………….………….………. 100 Table 4.3: Hydro related Settlement Agreements with non-NFA Aboriginal communities in Northern Manitoba Study Region...…….………………….…. 102 Table 4.4: Hydro related agreements specific to Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation…….…….107 vii Glossary of Cree terms: As-ki: typically translated as or denotes “the land;” “includes all living things such as the animals, the plants, the trees, the fish, the rivers, the lakes, and including the rocks. Askiy also includes our concept of the sky world” (Young, 2017). Cha-pan: (translation) “great-grandparent.” Ith-in-ne-si-win: (translation) “living in the way of Ith-in-e-wuk;” “Cree way of life or being.” Ith-in-e-wuk: (translation) “the people” or “people;” may also appear as “Ith-in-e-wuk.” Mi-tho pi-ma-tis-i-win: (translation) “a good life.” Misi-pa-wi-stik: (translation) “grand rapids”; Cree place name for “Grand Rapids.” Neetha: (translation) “me.” Ni-he-tho-we-wuk: (translation) “people who speak with the four winds.” Ni-he-tho Isk-wew: (translation) “Cree speaking woman.” Ni-ka-wi: (translation) “my mother.” Ni-pi: (translation) “water.” Ni-si-cha-way-a-si: Cree place name for lands/territory surrounding Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation. Ni-wah-ko-man-o-wuk: “our relations” (Young, 2017). Noo-ta-wi: (translation) “my father.” O-chi-ni-win: “consequences when we break our natural laws” (Young, 2017). O-te-tis-ke-win: (translation) “footprint.” O-na-si-chik-e-wina:“our sacred laws” (Young, 2017). Pas-to-win: “consequences when we break our natural laws” (Young, 2017). Pimicikamak- Cree place name for the community known as Cross Lake. Tataskweyak- place name for the Cree First Nation now known as Split Lake; “split lake.” Ti-pi-ni-sim-o-win: own[ing] ourselves (Young, 2017); power and to make and enact decisions. viii Wa-ko-to-win: “how we relate to one another” (Young, 2017). Wa-Ni-Ska-Tan: (translation) to “rise up” or “wake up.” Wa-pa-si: Cree (Ni-si-cha-way-a-si) place name for Leftrook Lake. We-sah-ke-chak: an important Cree cultural icon; has also been referred to as the “trickster.” ix List of Acronyms: AFP- Augmented Flow Program CASIL- Community Association of South Indian Lake CIA- Comprehensive Implementation Agreement CRD- Churchill River Diversion Project LWR- Lake Winnipeg Regulation MIA- Master Implementation Agreement NFA- Northern Flood Agreement NCN- Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation NFC- Northern Flood Committee NWCN- Norway House Cree Nation OPCN- O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation SIL- South Indian Lake TCN- Tataskweyak Cree Nation WPLP- Wuskwatim Power Limited Partnership x “Elders have been telling us for years that in order to move ahead we have to know where we are in the present and where we have been. Once you are grounded in the present and the past, you can move forward” (Dumas, 2013, Introduction). “To tell you this story I need to go back in time, back to memory” (Kovach,2009, p. 3). xi Nanaskoomowina Na-nas-ko-mo-wi-na derives from the Cree term “na-nas-ko-mo-win” which means “to be thankful” or “to give thanks.” Na-nas-ko-mo-wi-na, loosely translates as “to those who I give thanks” or “acknowledgement” and can be used as a way to express or denote one’s gratitude. It is important to begin this study by giving thanks and acknowledging the many ith-in-e- wuk from the study region described in this study, in northern Manitoba, who helped shape my ideas about the subject matter contained herein, who helped contribute to my critical thought processes and who, in their own ways, taught me about “being” Cree. Over the last decade I