flast.indd x 8/24/2010 7:02:15 AM Infectious Causes of Cancer 9780470518052_1_pretoc.indd i 8/23/2010 6:43:12 PM Dedication To my wife Liz and my son Ian 9780470518052_1_pretoc.indd ii 8/23/2010 6:43:13 PM Infectious Causes of Cancer A guide for nurses and healthcare professionals Kenneth Campbell, MSc (Clinical Oncology) A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication 9780470518052_1_pretoc.indd iii 8/23/2010 6:43:13 PM This edition first published 2011 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons Ltd, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Registered Offi ce John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial Offi ces John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats: ePDF 9780470753644. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Campbell, Ken, FIBMS. Infectious causes of cancer : a guide for nurses and healthcare professionals / Kenneth Campbell. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-51805-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Microbial carcinogenesis. 2. Viral carcinogenesis. 3. Cancer–Nursing. I. Title. [DNLM: 1. Neoplasms–etiology. 2. Neoplasms–nursing. 3. DNA Viruses–pathogenicity. 4. Nursing Care. 5. Oncogenic Viruses–pathogenicity. WY 156] RC268.57.C357 2011 616.99’401–dc22 2010031090 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12.5pt Palatino by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India 1 2011 9780470518052_1_pretoc.indd iv 8/23/2010 6:43:13 PM Contents Preface . ..vii Abbreviations . .viii Introduction . .1 1 Historical background . .5 2 The global burden. .20 3 Molecular biology of cancer . .44 4 Biological background . .57 5 Public health considerations and prevention . .70 Part I: Viral Causes of Cancer . .91 6 Herpesviruses (Herpesviridae). .93 7 Hepatitis viruses . .106 8 Human papillomaviruses . .121 9 Retroviruses . .141 10 Polyomaviruses . .155 Part II: Bacterial Causes of Cancer . .159 11 Helicobacter pylori . .161 Part III: Parasitic Causes of Cancer . .173 12 Schistosome species . .175 9780470518052_2_toc.indd v 8/20/2010 3:47:03 PM vi ■ Contents 13 Liver flukes . .182 14 Unconfirmed associations . .187 Summary Tables. .191 Index . .202 9780470518052_2_toc.indd vi 8/20/2010 3:47:03 PM Preface Worldwide, over 10 million people are diagnosed with cancer each year and about 6 million people die each year of cancer; in the developing world as much as 25% of the cancer burden results from chronic infection1. Vaccination against Hepatitis B virus has had striking success in reducing the incidence of liver can- cer in populations where the infection is endemic. Development of a vaccine against Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) offers hope of similar reduction in cervi- cal cancer incidence. This book, aimed principally at nurses and other healthcare professionals, will consider the epidemiology and biology of infectious causes of cancer. It will dis- cuss each of the infectious agents associated with an increased risk of cancer discussing epidemiology of the infection and cancer(s), pathophysiology of the cancer(s) mechanisms, associated risk factors, and prevention of the infection and of the associated cancer(s). It is vital for nurses and other healthcare professionals to be aware of the extent of infection-associated cancer and of how they can contribute to prevention of such cancers. Although the burden of infection-associated cancers is greatest in the developing world, they constitute a very significant fraction of all cases seen glo- bally and the rise in global travel requires nurses to have a global understanding of health risks. Reference 1. Bray, F. I. & Ferlay, J. (2003) The global burden of cancer. In: World Cancer Report, 1st edn (eds B. W. Stewart & P. Kleihues), pp. 11–19. IARC, Lyon. fpref.indd vii 8/24/2010 7:02:34 AM Abbreviations ABC Abstain, Be faithful, use a Condom AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome ATLL Adult T cell leukaemia/lymphoma BBV Blood-borne viruses BCE Before Christian Era BL Burkitt’s Lymphoma CAH Chronic active hepatitis CDC Centers for Disease Control CIN Cervical intra-epithelial neoplasm CKS Classic Kaposi sarcoma CMV Cytomegalovirus CTL Cytotoxic T lymphocyte CTVT Canine transmissible venereal tumour EBV Epstein–Barr virus ECC Extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma ERV Endogenous retrovirus GBV Hepatitis G virus GERD Gastro-oesophageal reflux disorder GSHV Ground squirrel hepatitis virus GvHD Graft versus host disease HAART Highly active anti-retroviral therapy HAM/TSP HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/Tropical spastic paresis HBV Hepatitis B virus HCC Hepatocellular carcinoma HCV Hepatitis C virus HDV Hepatitis D virus HER Human endogenous retrovirus HGV Hepatitis G virus HHMMTV Human homologue of MMTV HHV4 Human herpesvirus 4 HHV8 Human herpesvirus 8 HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HL Hodgkin Lymphoma flast.indd viii 8/24/2010 7:02:15 AM Abbreviations ■ ix HNC Head and neck cancer HNSCC Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck HPA Health Protection Agency HPV Human papillomavirus HSV Herpes simplex virus HTLV-1 Human T lymphotropic virus-1 Human T cell leukaemia virus-1 IAC Infection-associated cancer IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer ICC Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma IM Infectious mononucleosis IP-CNS Immunoblastic primary central nervous system lymphoma KS Kaposi sarcoma KSHV Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus LSHTM London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine MALT Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue MALToma Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma MCC Merkel cell carcinoma MCD Multi-centric Castleman’s disease MCPV Merkel cell polyomavirus MCV Merkel cell virus MMTV Murine mammary tumour virus MSM Men who have sex with men NAT Nucleic acid test NPC Nasopharyngeal carcinoma PEL Primary effusion lymphoma PMTCT Prevention of mother to child transmission PTLD Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder PWHA People with HIV or AIDS QALY Quality adjusted life year RSV Rous sarcoma virus SABC Schistosomiasis-associated bladder cancer SCC Squamous cell carcinoma SSE Stratified squamous epithelium STI Sexually transmitted infection SV40 Simian virus 40 TCC Transitional cell carcinoma TRIM Transfusion-related immunomodulation TTI Transfusion-transmitted infection VLP Virus-like particle WHO World Health Organization WHV Woodchuck hepatitis virus flast.indd ix 8/24/2010 7:02:15 AM flast.indd x 8/24/2010 7:02:15 AM Introduction Over 99% of the world’s population is infected with at least one potentially cancer-causing organism. Clearly, the mere presence of such an organism is not typically sufficient to cause cancer – in most, and probably all, cases the infection is a necessary but not sufficient cause1. Fortunately, the requirement for cofactors ensures that most such infections only cause cancer in a small proportion of infected individuals. Despite this, infections are estimated collectively to account for at least 16% of all cancers globally, while in the developing world the propor- tion may be greater than 20%2. Kinlen has pointed out that these are likely to be underestimates since they do not include instances of infections acting as co- carcinogens3, while Blattner has suggested that viruses alone may account for 20% of all cancers4. It is often stated that cervical cancer is unique in always being asso- ciated with a specific causal agent (human papillomavirus (HPV) which has been demonstrated in 99.7% of cervical cancer specimens examined5); this is not strictly true since the presence of HTLV-1 is part of the definition of Adult T cell leukae- mia/lymphoma (ATTL)6. It is clear that, although HPV infection is necessary for cervical cancer to develop, it is not sufficient; if it were, the incidence of cervical cancer would be much higher, it is the second commonest cancer affecting women globally and, in some developing countries it is the most common female cancer. It has been suggested that ‘Most women in the world are probably infected with at least one if not several types of HPV during their sexual life.7’ Throughout most of human history, conditions of hygiene and sanitation now seen only in the developing world and amongst the very poor were the norm. This implies that the global impact of infectious causes of cancer would almost cer- tainly have been significantly greater than in modern times. Many of the com- moner cancers in the developed world are diseases of late life so they are comparatively rare in populations with short average life expectancy.