THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP: A TWENTIETH-CENTURY PERSPECTIVE By Kevin Christopher Bradley Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts In Public Anthropology Chair: Daniel Sayers, Ph.D. Richard J. Dent, Ph.D. Sue Taylor, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences Date 2013 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 © COPYRIGHT by Kevin Christopher Bradley 2013 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP: A TWENTIETH-CENTURY PERSPECTIVE BY Kevin Christopher Bradley ABSTRACT Research presented in this thesis will continue the investigation of (inter)actions within and around the Great Dismal Swamp, while expanding analysis beyond the current temporal focus of the Great Dismal Swamp Landscape Study. The twentieth century witnessed perhaps the most dramatic series of changes to landscape use in the Great Dismal Swamp throughout its entire social history, changes that undoubtedly affected previously established behaviors and relationships. Archival material and oral reports referenced in this work help identify the socioeconomic and ideological underpinnings of society, providing a means to evaluate how these broad processes influenced cultural activity in and around the swamp. Of particular interest in this thesis is the identification and understanding of the signs and manifestations of control expressed over the landscape, and the consequential acts of defiance taken by marginalized or disenfranchised communities. Archaeological evidence, also, has the potential to further illuminate our understanding of past actions in the swamp. However, since no concerted archaeological investigations of the twentieth century have been conducted there, it will be demonstrated that not only is such an endeavor possible, but it is ultimately worthwhile. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First, I would like to thank my committee members. Dr. Daniel Sayers, Dr. Sue Taylor, and Dr. Richard J. Dent provided invaluable support and guidance, especially in the production of my thesis and, in general, throughout my matriculation at American University. I am deeply grateful to Dr. Sayers whose early receptive and candid conversations encouraged me to continue my education in archaeology at American University. Not only have I benefited greatly from his expert tutelage, but the numerous discussions we held in his office about baseball and animals will count among my fondest memories while in graduate school. As a research assistant to Dr. Taylor and a student of Dr. Dent’s, I am thankful for the roles they played in my academic development and the genuine thoughts and opinions they shared with me over the years. I am also fortunate in my personal life to be surrounded by unwavering support and encouragement. In particular, I would like to acknowledge fellow graduate student Rebecca Peixotto for her friendship and consistently sound advice, without which I may never have successfully navigated graduate school. I am equally appreciative of Rebecca Stone Gordon and Pin Thanesnant for their support and immensely positive attitudes about my work and just about everything else. I will be forever grateful to my entire family, who not only fostered in me a sincere appreciation for the past, but a belief that one should constantly explore and pursue the things about which they are passionate. The daily encouragement and patience I received from Richard, Cheryl, Geoff, Shannon, Brian, and Liz Bradley and Michael, Barbara, Mary, and Regan McLaughlin was a much needed source of strength during the most challenging moments of the writing process. Finally, my wife, Sarah, is deserving of my most heartfelt appreciation. Her unflagging confidence in me as a person and in my abilities carried me through countless times of doubt and iii insecurity. She acted simultaneously as my editor, my counselor, and my mentor; and, like no other, Sarah shared with me in the difficulties and sacrifices required to successfully complete this thesis and my education. For that, she (and our girls) will always have my eternal gratitude and love. Thank you all. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ........................................................................................................ vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 3 Research Sources .................................................................................................... 4 Theoretical Concepts .............................................................................................. 7 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2: CENTRAL THEORETICAL CONCEPTS ............................................................. 9 Landscape ............................................................................................................... 9 Identity .................................................................................................................. 16 CHAPTER 3: PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY HISTORY ......................................................... 19 Prehistory .............................................................................................................. 19 European Colonization.......................................................................................... 21 Early Endeavors into the Dismal Swamp ............................................................. 23 Enslaved Labor in the Great Dismal Swamp ........................................................ 31 Maroons of the Great Dismal Swamp ................................................................... 36 The Civil War to the Turn of the Century............................................................. 40 CHAPTER 4: THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ............... 44 Lumbering ............................................................................................................. 44 Hunters .................................................................................................................. 53 Illicit Activity ........................................................................................................ 65 The Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge ........................................... 70 v CHAPTER 5: Archaeological Potential........................................................................................ 80 CHAPTER 6: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 89 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 98 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 USFWS Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge ‘Location Map’ ............ 2 Figure 2 USFWS ‘Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge’ map showing major canals..................................................................................................................... 25 Figure 3 Feeder Ditch today ................................................................................................ 26 Figure 4 Lumber rail in the swamp laid across fallen logs ................................................. 29 Figure 5 “Horse Camp” ....................................................................................................... 33 Figure 6 “Carting Shingles” ................................................................................................ 34 Figure 7 “Cart-Boy” ............................................................................................................ 34 Figure 8 Reclaimed swampland near Feeder Ditch ............................................................. 44 Figure 9 Supposedly the John L. Roper Lumber Company mill, Deep Creek.................... 50 Figure 10 Richmond Times-Dispatch article about lost hunters ........................................... 57 Figure 11 Richmond Times-Dispatch expressing fear of moonshiners in the Great Dismal Swamp................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 12 USFWS map showing bear hunting restrictions within the boundaries of the GDSNWR ............................................................................................................. 77 Figure 13 Remnants of a structure in the Great Dismal Swamp, possibly a hunting club .... 87 vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge (GDSNWR) is a biologically and environmentally diverse area of swampland encompassing roughly 175 square miles in the states of Virginia and North Carolina. Situated in the Tidewater region just minutes from major metropolitan hubs (e.g., Norfolk and Suffolk, Virginia and Elizabeth City, North Carolina); the federally-protected wetlands stands in stark contrast to the rapidly developing world surrounding it (Figure 1). Since 1974, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has been charged