CHAPTER 3 Electronics Technology Contents Page Overview o...... ... ..... o.... e..... o. 67 List of Figures Consumer Electronics . 68 Figure No. Page Semiconductors . 71 1. Simplified Diagram of TV Receiver Transistors . 72 Componentry . 69 Integrated Circuits . 72 2. Comparative Feature Sizes of System Design and the Microprocessor . 73 Microelectronic Devices Such as Microprocessors and Memory . 74 Integrated Circuits . 71 Learning Curves and Yields . 76 3. Controller for a Microwave Oven Based Integrated Circuit Design. 77 on Single-Chip Microcomputer . 75 Manufacturing Integrated Circuits . 78 4. Increases in IC Integration Level . 75 Future Developments . 81 5. Schematic Learning Curve for the Computers ● *,*,,.. ....***.. ● .*.**... 81 Production of an Integrated Circuit or Types of Computers . 82 Other Manufactured Item . 76 Computers as Systems . 83 6. Ranges in Cost and Time for Design and Computer Software . 85 Development of Integrated Circuits . 77 Growth of Computing Power . 87 7. Steps undesigning and Manufacturing an Applications of Computers . 90 Integrated Circuit . 78 8. Step-and-Repeat Process of Summary and Conclusions . 92 Photolithographic Pattern Formation on Appendix 3A-Integrated Silicon Wafer . 79 Circuit Technology . 93 9. Typical Microcomputer Intended for Personal and Small-Business Applications 84 Appendix 3B—Computer Memory . 99 10. Typical Minicomputer Installation Appendix 3C--A Process Including a Pair of Terminals and a Control Example . 102 Printer . 84 11. Data Processing Installation Built Around General-Purpose Mainframe Computer . 84 List of Tables 12. Simplified Block Diagram of a Microprocessor System . 84 Table No. Page 13. Elements of a General-Purpose Digital l. Examples of Solid-State Technologies Computer System . 85 Used in Information Processing . 72 14. Relative Hardware and Software Costs 2. Cost Increases for Fine-Line Lithography 80 Faced by Users of Larger Computer 3. Characteristics of Different Categories of Systems .0..0,. .*..,... 86 Digital Computers . 83 15. Minicomputer Price Trends . 89 4. Increase in Computing Power 16. Parallel Decreases Illustrate How Costs of Over Time . ● .*..,,, ● ,,...,, .0. 8a Computers Depend on Costs of 5. Comparison of IBM 650 and Fairchild Semiconductors . 89 F-8 Microcomputer . 88 3A-1. Silicon Wafer- - Showing- Patterns 6. Characteristics of Generations of Formed by Photolithography . 97 Computer Technology . 90 3A-2. Integrated Circuit Chip Before and 7. Typical Applications of After Final Encapsulation . 98 Computing Capability . 91 3B-1. Performance of Computer Memory 3A-l. Common Terminology and Alternatives . 100 Classifications of Integrated Circuits . 94 3C-1. Portion of Process Control System for 3A-2. Principal Types of Memory Circuits . 96 a Chemical Plant . 103 3B-1. Computer Memory. 101 CHAPTER 3 Electronics Technology Overview This chapter outlines the technology on of discrete voltage levels—e.g., any voltage be- which the consumer electronics, semicon- tween –2 and i-l volts might represent a ductor, and computer industries depend, cov- binary “O, ” any value from + 2 to + 5 volts, a ering them with enough depth to provide back- binary “1. ” ground for discussions later in the report con- cerning the role of technology as a force on Regardless of the simplicity or complexity of competitiveness. Except for occasional ex- the information content in a signal, either ana- amples, competitiveness itself is left to later log or digital technology can, in general, be chapters. employed. The choice turns on the practical advantages and disadvantages for a given ap- The primary function of electronic compo- plication. A complex system may use analog nents and systems is to manipulate and trans- circuitry for some tasks, digital for others. In mit information in the form of electrical sig- nals—either analog or digital, The transmission geophysical exploration, for instance, an ana- log signal—essentially a mechanical pressure and utilization of electric power are integral pulse or sequence of pulses—is transmitted into to these processes, but constitute only second- a geological formation. The reflected pulse ary functions of electronic equipment. Even in from the subsurface strata is sensed by trans- the case of a 50,000-watt radio broadcasting sta- ducers analogous to microphones. These trans- tion, the high power simply increases the area ducers respond to the mechanical energy of the coverage of the information in the signal. The reflected pulse by generating a proportional information manipulated and conveyed via an analog electrical output. Analog-to-digital con- electronic system can range from a simple verters—typically integrated circuits (ICs)— sequence of numbers—e.g., a zip code, or the then convert these signals to digital informa- balance in a checking account—to the sounds tion that can be processed and analyzed by a conveyed by radio, images such as television pictures or weather maps, or the information digital computer. contained in radar or sonar signals. Both analog and digital technologies have a Changes in electrical voltage are the most place in the three sectors of the electronics in- common carrier of information in electronic dustry covered in this report, But while most systems. In an analog system, the signal takes consumer electronics equipment is still based the form of a voltage or some other electrical on analog technology—radio and TV receivers, parameter that varies continuously over a phonograph records, magnetic tape players— range, while digital information is encoded in virtually all computers process information in the form of a string of binary “bits.” Each bi- digital form. At the same time, computer pe- nary bit can take on one of a pair of discrete ripherals such as terminals and printers con- values, again usually voltages. The magnitude tain analog circuitry, while digitally based con- of these is unimportant, so long as they can be sumer products are becoming more common. distinguished from one another. A bit can be Semiconductor devices come in both analog visualized as having values of “O” or “l, ” or (often termed “linear”) and digital varieties. A “+” as opposed to “ – .“ In a digital circuit, few ICs combine analog and digital circuitry the signal normally takes the form of a string on the same “chip. ” 67 68 ● International Competitiveness in Electronics Consumer Electronics The most common consumer electronic prod- ics markets is now in new generations of prod- ucts are radios, TVs, and audio equipment such ucts, notably VCRs. Still, in many respects as “stereo” systems. Electronic toys and games, —e.g., the relatively standardized design ap- electronic watches, pocket calculators, and proaches and critical importance of production home computers are other familiar examples. costs—color TV continues to typify consumer These are all “systems” in the sense that they electronic technologies. contain more than a single electronic compo- Television signals are broadcast via ampli- nent, but some are much more complex than tude modulation of a high-frequency carrier others. An electronic watch may consist of lit- signal, much like AM radio, But the bandwidth tle beyond a single IC and a display—itself a requirements for TV are far greater—about 6 solid-state device—plus a battery, Television MHz, versus 10 KHz for AM radio. Bandwidth, receivers contain several hundred components. which is expressed in terms of frequency—6 Video cassette recorders (VCRs) are complex 6 MHz being equal to 6 x 10 cycles per second, 3 mechanically as well as electronically, 10 KHZ to 10 x 10 cycles per second—is a Radio broadcasting provided the foundation measure of the rate at which information can for the development of the consumer elec- be conveyed, hence must increase with the tronics industry. Despite a real cost much amount of information in a signal. The pictorial higher than today, there were well over 10 image in a TV signal has a much higher infor- million radio receivers in use in the United mation content than sound, hence television’s States by 1930, with annual sales exceeding $1 high bandwidth requirements, In principle, the billion. ’ analog information in either a radio or a TV signal could be conveyed in digital form with- Research and development (R&D) on televi- out changing the bandwidth requirements sion began in the 1920’s, with limited broad- greatly. casting prior to World War 11. Large-scale com- mercialization had to await the end of the war, A home antenna receives the amplitude-mod- but by 1949 5 million TV sets were sold in the ulated TV signal at a microvolt level (1 micro- United States—all black-and-white. Color tel- volt equals 10-8 volts). To produce a visual im- evision—for which most of the early work was age, this signal is amplified to control an elec- performed by RCA—followed the next year, but tron beam which scans the front of the picture color TV sales in the United States did not pass tube—or cathode-ray tube (CRT) —forming a the 5 million mark until 1967, and first ex- new image 30 times each second (the number ceeded black-and-white sales in 1972.2 of frames per second can vary abroad). The cir- cuitry in a TV receiver is quite complicated (fig. With more than 11 million color sets sold in 1) and now entirely solid state (the chassis in- 1982, and about half as many black-and-white cludes both discrete transistors and ICs) except sets, the TV receiver remains the largest sell- for the picture tube, The CRT is the most ex- ing consumer electronics product, accounting pensive single component in the set, account- for nearly half the dollar value of consumer ing for about 40 percent of the cost. Produc- electronics sales in the United States (ch. 4). ing picture tubes is a highly specialized activi- Monochrome TV sales have been rather static ty; smaller firms often buy CRTs from manu- for a number of years, with the market for col- facturers such as Zenith or RCA, or sets expanding only slowly; cable TV and direct satellite reception may spur future sales, Conventional picture tubes are not only but much of the growth in consumer electron- bulky and expensive, but account for much of — .