A GRAMMAR OF MUALANG : AN IBANIC LANGUAGE OF WESTERN KALIMANTAN , INDONESIA Published by LOT phone: +31 30 253 6006 Janskerkhof 13 fax: +31 30 253 6406 3512 BL Utrecht e-mail: [email protected] The Netherlands http://www.lotschool.nl Cover illustration: Mualang men carrying rice in a lanyik basket. Photo courtesy of R. Allen Drake. ISBN 978-90-78328-24-7 NUR 632 Copyright © 2007: Johnny Tjia. All rights reserved. A Grammar of Mualang: An Ibanic Language of Western Kalimantan, Indonesia Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op woensdag 25 april 2007 klokke 15.00 uur door JOHNNY TJIA geboren te Obi, Noord Molukken (Indonesië), in 1965 Promotiecommissie promotor: prof. dr. W.A.L. Stokhof medepromotor: prof. dr. H. Steinhauer co-promotor: dr. D. van Minde referent: prof. dr. B. Nothofer (Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main) overige leden: prof. dr. W.F.H. Adelaar dr. A. Th. P. G. van Engelenhoven dr. M.A.F. Klamer dr. G. P. Reesink prof. dr. L. J. de Vries Research for this doctoral dissertation was made possible by a grant from the Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies and the assistance of the Leiden University Centre for Linguistics (LUCL). Tanda kenangan buat Linda, Yosua dan Yehu Acknowledgements Throughout the years which finally resulted in the publication of the present study I have received abundant help from many parties and persons. I would like to express my gratitude first of all to the Research School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies (CNWS), Leiden University, for having provided me with a scholarship to attend the Advanced Masters Program (2000-2001), and subsequently with a PhD grant (2001-2005) to study the Mualang language. Especially I wish to thank Prof. Dr. Jarich Oosten, Dr. Sabine Luning, Dr. Willem Vogelsang, Dr. Alex de Voogt, Mrs. Ilona Beumer-Grill, and Mrs. Wilma Trommelen for their help and understanding during the years. It was Prof. Dr. James T. Collins who first draw my attention to the languages of West Kalimantan. For his encouragement to undertake the research resulting in the present study I shall always remain grateful. Special thanks I owe to my good friend Drs. Betty Litamahuputty, who gave me lots of assistance and advise, also before I actually set foot in the Netherlands. My thanks also go to the many friends at SIL International for their prayers and for their support for my family during the periods I was in Leiden or in the field. I would further like to express my sincere appreciation to the following kind people in the Netherlands: to Heidy Samallo with her children who accepted me as a member of their family; to Oom Ed Walbeehm who offered me his home as my own; to Oom Jan and Tante Edith Visser for their help, prayers and the many things they have done for me. I owe a smooth start of my research in the field to Prof. Dr. Syarif Ibrahim Alqadrie, M.Sc., of Universitas Tanjung Pura, who with his family kindly hosted me in their home, and who sponsored my research locally. A helpful sponsorship was also gained through Dr. Chairil Effendi of the Pusat Kajian Melayu of Universitas Tanjung Pura. This book would never have been written without the constant help of the Mualang community. My deepest feelings of gratitude therefore go to the Mualang people, especially to my friends in the village of Tabuk Hulu, who welcomed me into their midst. In particular I am indebted to the family of Apay Daniel Tagang and Inay Rahel for having adopted me as their son in their home, and to my main language helpers, Kristianus Demong and Mr. Kawit, who helped me in many ways (including transcribing texts) and who were never tired answering to my persistent questions. Mr. Sulaiman, Mr. Nabas, and Mr. Elisa Sura were also very helpful in providing me with lots of information. Tomy Aquino accompanied me travel around many places. I also thank the Reverend David of the Gereja Kemah Injil at Balai Sepuak and to Mr. Bilai and family who kindly provided me with their home every time I had to stay overnight on my way to villages. I am grateful to the Leiden University Centre for Linguistics (LUCL), especially its coordinator, Dr. Jeroen van de Weijer, for enabling me to publish this dissertation. For technical assistance during the final stages leading to the examination of this thesis I am grateful also to Drs. Amis Boersma of the Leiden office of the International Institute for Asian Studies. In particular I thank Helen Miehle, PhD., of SIL International Indonesia. I cannot imagine how I could have managed finishing this thesis without her kind help in checking and correcting my English. Akhirnya, dengan penuh suka cita saya sampaikan terima kasih untuk keluarga saya: Linda, Yosua, dan Yehu, dan juga Uning, yang turun berkelana dalam suka dan susah selama masa studi ini. Buku ini dipersembahkan untuk kalian semua. Above all, I sincerely thank God in Christ for His goodness during all these years of study and for having blessed my family with these wonderful, though tough, times. Conventions and Abbreviations [ ] phonetic representation; contextual information (in sentence examples); chunks of clauses (e.g. in complement clauses) ( ) additional information (as given in English translation for sentence examples / / phonemic representation . syllable boundary; symbol connecting English words in glosses for a single Mualang morpheme = clitic boundary ~ varies with is realized as ∅ zero or deleted sound (in phonology); zero or the gap (in relative clauses); zero anaphora (participant reference) + morpheme boundary { } either environment in the curly brackets operates (phonology) * ungrammatical form; reconstructed proto form ? questionable form (in front of an example sentence) 1d.excl first person dual exclusive 1d.incl first person dual inclusive 1p.excl first person plural exclusive 1p.incl first person plural inclusive 1s first person singular 2d second person dual 2p second person plural 2s.fem second person singular female 2s.hon second person singular honorific 2s.masc second person singular masculine 3d third person dual 3p third person plural 3s third person singular 3s.indef.hum third person singular indefinite human 3s.indef.nonhum third person singular indefinite non-human A agent ACT active voice marker adv adverb ADVR adversative passive voice marker ANPAS antipassive voice marker asp aspectual marker B base form C consonant CAUS causative prefix CLASS classifier conj conjunction CONT.NEG contrastive negator DEM demonstrative excl exclamatory word; exclusive EXIST.NEG existential negator FUT future tense marker HAB.INAB habitual inability illoc illocutionary marker INCH inchoative voice marker incl inclusive intr interrogative word IO indirect object LOC locative; locative preposition MEAS measure word MI Mualang Ili’ (Downstream Mualang) MID unvolitional-resultative middle voice marker mod modal MU Mualang Ulu (Upstream Mualang) N noun; nasal morphophoneme; nasal phoneme n noun (used in the wordlist) NEG clausal negator NOM nominalizer (prefix) NP noun phrase num numeral O (direct) object ORD ordinal number marker P patient part particle PASS passive voice marker PC participial complement PERF perfect aspect marker POSS possessive marker PP prepositional phrase PREC precategorial form pref prefix PREP preposition PROG progressive aspect marker pron pronoun QP quantifying phrase quan quantifier RC relative clause RED reduplication REL relativizer S subject SVC serial verb construction TOA term of address TOP topic marker V verb; vowel vi/vt intransitive/transitive verb VP verb phras CONTENTS Acknowledgements Conventions Table of Contents 1 General Introduction 1 1.1 The speakers and their country 1 1.2 Daily life and culture 5 1.3 Genetic affiliation 6 1.4 Sociolinguistic situation 7 1.4.1 Dialects 7 1.4.2 Language in use 8 1.5 Previous studies 9 1.6 Aims and theoretical framework 10 1.7 Field methods and data base 11 2 Phonology 13 2.1 Phoneme inventory 13 2.1.1 Consonant inventory 13 2.1.2 Vowel inventory 17 2.2 Segmental Phonology 18 2.2.1 Consonants 18 2.2.1.1 Stops 18 2.2.1.2 Nasals 20 2.2.1.2.1 Plain Nasals 20 2.2.1.2.2 Postploded Nasals 24 2.2.1.3 Fricatives 25 2.2.1.4 Lateral 26 2.2.1.5 Approximants 26 2.2.2 Vowels 27 2.2.2.1 Vowel sequences 31 2.2.2.2 Status of diphthongs 31 2.2.2.3 Curious clusters 32 2.3 Syllable and root structure 33 2.4 Stress 36 2.5 Morphophonemics 38 2.5.1 Alternation of vowel segments in prefixes and prepositions 38 2.5.2 Vowel deletion 39 2.5.3 Glottal stop insertion 40 2.5.4 Nasal assimilation in N-prefixation 40 2.5.4.1 Nasal assimilation in partial reduplication 42 2.5.4.2 Problem of ֊ђN- form 42 2.5.5 Alternate forms of prefixes and prepositions 44 2.5.5.1 Antipassive ba - 44 2.5.5.2 Passive da - 44 2.5.5.3 Middle tђ- 44 2.5.5.3 Causative pђ- 44 2.5.5.3 Preposition da 45 2.5.6 Fusion of the prepositions da and ka with a following noun 45 2.6 Orthography 45 3 The Lexicon 47 3.1 Morphological units 47 3.2 Morphological processes 48 3.2.1 Prefixation 48 3.2.2 Reduplication 48 3.2.3 Compounding 49 3.3 Word classes 49 3.3.1 Nouns 50 3.3.1.1 Semantic properties 50 3.3.1.2 Syntactic properties 50 3.3.1.3 Morphological properties 51 3.3.1.3.1 Derivational morphology: nominalization 51 3.3.1.4 Subclasses of nouns 51 3.3.1.4.1 Proper names 52 3.3.1.4.2 Pronouns 52 3.3.1.4.3 Terms of address 54 3.3.2 Verbs 56 3.3.2.1 Semantic properties 56 3.3.2.2