CARDIFF SCHOOL OF EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, TRANSLATION AND POLITICS PhD THESIS THE ROLE OF NATIONAL IDENTITY IN ACCESSION TO THE EUROPEAN UNION: THE CASE OF TURKEY NAZAN YORGOZLU 2012 List of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... ii List of Tables .................................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. iv List of Graphs ..................................................................................................................................... v List of Boxes ...................................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. vii Chapter 1 THE RESEARCH AIMS AND THE SCOPE 1.1. Background to the Research ..................................................................................2 1.2. The Research Aim and Objective ..........................................................................5 1.3. Research Questions ..............................................................................................11 1.4. Research Rationale ...............................................................................................12 1.5. The Structure of the Thesis ..................................................................................15 PART I - Chapter 2 NATIONALISM & NATIONAL IDENTITY 2.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................21 2.2. The Generation of Nationalism and Explaining Nationalism ..............................27 2.3. The Importance of Illustrating “The Role of National Identity in the Accession to the European Union” ...................................................................................................30 2.4. Theoretical Approaches towards Nationalism and National Identity ..................33 PART I - Chapter 3 CONSTRUCTING TURKEY’S NATIONAL IDENTITY Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Community 3.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................41 3.2. Constructions of National Identity in Turkey ......................................................42 3.2.1. The Origins of Turkey ......................................................................................44 3.2.2. Historical, Cultural and Political Dimension of Turkey ...................................58 3.2.2.1. Ontological Dimension ..................................................................................63 3.2.2.2. Historical Dimension .....................................................................................71 3.2.2.3. Political Dimension ........................................................................................73 PART II -Chapter 4 ONTOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF TURKEY: The Cultural Dimension 4.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................77 4.2. Constants of Turkish Identity ...............................................................................82 4.2.1. Geography .........................................................................................................82 4.2.2. Demography and Population .............................................................................86 4.2.3. Language ...........................................................................................................99 4.2.4. Ethnic Composition ........................................................................................102 4.2.5. Religion ...........................................................................................................105 4.3. How does the EU view Turkey’s Ontological Constants? .................................111 4.4. Turkish Religious Identity: fear of the “other”? ................................................116 4.5. Imagining a Clash of Civilizations ....................................................................119 PART II - Chapter 5 TURKEY’S POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE CHALLENGE OF EU ACCESSION 5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................125 5.2. A Historical Perspective: The Role of Religion ................................................128 5.2.1. The Ottoman Empire Period ...........................................................................129 5.2.2. Secular Turkey in Ataturk’s Period ................................................................132 5.2.2.1. Abolition of the Caliphate ............................................................................136 5.2.2.2. Abolition of Sultanate ..................................................................................137 5.3. Turkey: Between Ataturk’s Secularism and Political Islam ..............................138 5.3.1. Islamic Initiatives (1923-1950) .......................................................................141 5.3.2. Islamic Expansions (1970- 2001) ...................................................................143 5.3.3. Islamic Power (Since 2001) ............................................................................147 5.4. Religious Tensions between Turkey and EU .....................................................150 5.5. Islam towards Europe ........................................................................................156 PART III - Chapter 6 ONTOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF TURKEY: The Political Dimension 6.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................160 6.2. Variables of Turkish Identity .............................................................................163 6.3. Turkey and the Formal EU Accession Criteria ..................................................169 6.3.1. The Existence of a Stable and Institutionalised Democracy ...........................175 6.3.1.1. Ergenekon Case ...........................................................................................179 6.3.2. Rule of Law .....................................................................................................182 6.3.3. Respect for Human Rights ..............................................................................186 6.4. Military towards Democracy .............................................................................189 6.5. Identity and the Kurdish Issue ...........................................................................194 PART III - Chapter 7 HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF TURKEY’S MILITARY POWER Considering on EU Accession Issues 7.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................209 7.2. A Historical Perspective: The Role of Military Power ......................................210 7.2.1. Ottoman Sovereignty Period ...........................................................................212 7.2.2. The New Turkish Republic .............................................................................216 7.2.3. The Single Party System Period .....................................................................222 7.2.4. The Multi Party System Period .......................................................................223 7.2.5. The Right - Left Conflicts Period ...................................................................226 7.2.6. A Period of Political Taboo ............................................................................227 7.2.7. The First Neo- Liberal Government ...............................................................229 7.3. Historical Analysis of the Turkish Military Coups ............................................232 7.3.1. The 1st Military Coup (1960) ..........................................................................233 7.3.2. The 2nd Military Intervention (1971) ..............................................................237 7.3.3. The 3rd Military Coup (1980) ..........................................................................238 7.3.4. The 4th Military Coup (1997) ..........................................................................239 7.3.5. The 5th Military Coup (2007) ..........................................................................242 7.4. How Military Coups Affected Turkey’s Bid? ...................................................245 7.5. How EU Makes Cooperation with Turkish Army? ...........................................250 PART IV - Chapter 8 EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS Influence on Turkish Political Identity 8.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................259 8.2. How the History began between EU and Turkey? .............................................261 8.2.1. Turkey’s Partnership Application to the EEC – 1959 ....................................266 8.2.2. Ankara Agreement with the EEC and Turkey – 1963 ....................................267 8.2.3. Turkey’s Application