Name: Eleni Christidou Stylianou Student number: s1003186 Supervisor: John Bintlif Specialization: Classical and Mediterranean Archaeology (Second Specialization: Archaeology of the Near East) University of Leiden Faculty of Archaeology Leiden 2012 1 To my father 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................6 1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................7 2. Historical Introduction......................................................................................................10 2.1 The Byzantine Empire................................................................................................10 2.1.1 The Emerging of the Byzantine Empire. Chronology......................................10 2.1.2 General Remarks..............................................................................................13 2.2 The Arab – Islamic World..........................................................................................14 3. Arab-Byzantine Literary Exchanges..................................................................................19 3.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................24 4. Maritime Activities, Hostilities and Reconciliation in the Mediterranean......................27 4.1 Advanced Arab-Byzantine Trade Relations at the end of the tenth century...........29 4.2 Navigation in the Red Sea- Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea: General remarks..................................................................................................................................33 4.3 Development in naval architecture..........................................................................37 4.3.1 Shell-first and skeleton-first technique............................................................37 4.3.2 Sails and Rigs...................................................................................................38 4.3.3 Steering gear.....................................................................................................40 4.3.4 Bilge Pumps......................................................................................................40 4.3.5 Sounding Weights..............................................................................................40 4.3.6 Containers and Cranes.....................................................................................41 4.4 Arab-Byzantine Exchanges of Technology................................................................41 4.5 Types of Ships............................................................................................................47 4.5.1 Construction and Function...............................................................................47 4.5.2 Size and appellations of Byzantine and Arab Merchant and Warships...........48 4.5.3 Dromon or Shīni...............................................................................................50 4.5.4 Shalandi or Chelandion....................................................................................59 4.5.5 Shakhtur – Bāridj – Galea..............................................................................60 4.5.6 Tarita – Ṭarīda.................................................................................................61 3 4.5.7 Karavos – Qārib...............................................................................................62 4.6 Case studies...............................................................................................................63 4.6.1 The Shipwreck of Yassi Ada (7th c.).................................................................64 4.6.2 The Shipwreck of Serçe Limani (11th c.).........................................................66 4.6.3 The excavations for the Marmaray - Metro of Istanbul..................................71 5. Byzantine and Arab Artistic Interactions..........................................................................78 5.1 Architecture and Ornamentation.............................................................................84 5.2 Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Egypt............................................................89 5.2.1 Khirbat al-Mafjar.............................................................................................94 5.2.2 The Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria........................................................95 5.2.3 The Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem............................99 5.3 The Iberian Peninsula-The Islamic State of Andalusia...........................................106 5.3.1 The palace at Madīnat al-Zahrā’...................................................................109 5.3.2 Motifs of flowers.............................................................................................109 5.3.3 The Great Mosque of Cordoba.......................................................................110 5.3.4 Capitals of columns........................................................................................111 5.4 Kufic and Pseudo-Kufic Inscriptions........................................................................113 5.5 Constantinople........................................................................................................117 5.6 Region of the Greek Mainland. Supplementary material from Anthens and Naxos 119 5.7 The aniconic Paintings in the church of St. Kuriaki in Naxos.................................121 5.8 Material Culture......................................................................................................126 5.8.1 The art of book illustration.............................................................................126 5.8.2 Coins...............................................................................................................134 5.8.3 Textiles and Ceramics.....................................................................................136 5.8.4 Glassware.......................................................................................................139 5.8.5 Jewelry............................................................................................................140 5.8.6 Woodwork.......................................................................................................141 5.8.7 Metal work......................................................................................................142 6. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................143 Abstract...................................................................................................................................147 Bibliography.............................................................................................................................148 4 List of Figures...........................................................................................................................159 Appendix.................................................................................................................................162 The Iconoclastic Movement and its Relationship with Islam. Palestinian Christianity, a Prelude to Iconoclasm........................................................................................................162 5 Preface At the end of the ancient world and at the early medieval times two great powers, Byzantium and the Arab-Islamic states, were engaged in a constant struggle. Nevertheless, in spite of the continuous warfare between these two superpowers we can glimpse frequent mutual interferences in various aspects of their civilizations. It is the aim of this paper first to offer a general background of the Byzantine and Arab empires designed to place each of them in a meaningful context and facilitate an understanding of their historical significance. The perspective in this part, as in the whole paper, is not from the Western viewpoint or indeed from any other. The perspective is to present the course of historical events as it ebbs and flows over centuries in a balanced way. Wars and military matters are necessarily treated but there is a definite tilt towards socio-economic aspects. Actually the cause of undertaking the topic of “Byzantium and the Arabs: Rivalry and Reconciliation” is to discuss a case of international interdisciplinary subject. It is for this purpose that the focus of this paper, after a broad introduction, is to emphasize the cultural relations between Byzantium and the Arabs at the time an unceasing struggle between these two superpowers was taking place. The most important cultural interchanges in literature, art, maritime technology and commerce will be discussed. On the one hand, a bird’s eye view of the above aspects is given, and on the other some new elements are presented. Among them a discussion of the Kufic or Pseudo-Kufic decorations in the church of Hosios Loukas in Greece and the aniconic images of some Byzantine churches on the island of Naxos. A short account of the most salient characteristics of both the Byzantine and Arab-Islamic civilizations will be presented before the discussion of the cultural interchanges. 6 Acknowledgements It is a great pleasure to thank everyone who helped me write my dissertation successfully.