The Inland Sámi Societies of Northern Fennoscandia during the Late Iron Age and Early Medieval Period: An Archaeological Approach Petri Halinen Petri Halinen, Archaeology, Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, University of Helsinki, P. O. Box 59, FI-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland / National Board of Antiquities, P. O. Box 913, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract This article explores the archaeological features of the inland Sámi societies of northern Fennoscandia in the Late Iron Age and early medieval period (ca. 700‒1300 CE). The traces of Late Iron Age and the early medieval dwelling sites of inland northern Fennoscandia are primarily rectangular hearths. The distribution area of the rectangular hearths is wide, from southern Norway and central Sweden to north-eastern Finland and Norway. A dwelling site most often comprises a row of hearths. The change in location of the dwelling sites occurred in approximately 700 CE, when sites began to be located near bogs, small lakes, and small rivers, in a completely different environment than earlier. The rectangular hearths are generally located in pine forests or birch forests. The bone material connected to the rectangular hearths primarily indicates wild reindeer hunting or reindeer herding. Good contact networks and long-distance travel could maintain the similarities of the societies in different sections of the area. 1 Introduction sible to identify the similarities and differences in such a large area? The purpose of this article is to explore the ar- Research into the Late Iron Age and me- chaeological features of the inland Sámi socie- dieval societies of the northern areas has been ties of northern Fennoscandia in the Late Iron on the fringes of archaeological research in Age and early medieval period (ca. 700‒1300 Finland: the historical and archaeological re- CE). The Sámi live today in Sápmi, in the search primarily addresses the themes of the northern portion of Fennoscandia and on the southern Finnish environment. The interiors Kola Peninsula. This large area comprises se- of Finland and Lapland are seldom discussed veral different geographical areas with their equally with southern Finland. This is partial- characteristic environmental factors. In dif- ly understandable because historical sources ferent areas of Sápmi, the Late Iron Age and regarding Lapland are quite scarce. Thus, early medieval archaeological record reads archaeology provides a fertile approach to differently; however, there are some common questions regarding the development of Late features. The prehistoric and early historical Iron Age and early medieval Sámi societies. inland Sámi societies are archaeologically in- During the last several decades, archaeologi- teresting because the area is wide and several cal surveys and excavations have resulted in features are similar from the south to the north- extensive new source material dated to these eastern corner 1000 km away. How is it pos- periods – many times the amount of materi- NEW SITES, NEW METHODS THE FINNISH ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, ISKOS 21, 2016 THE INLAND SÁMI SOCIETIES OF NORTHERN FENNOSCANDIA DURING THE LATE IRON AGE AND EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD Figure 1. Hearth 4, Inari Kiellajoenkangas. Photo: P. Halinen. als from older periods and previous decades. 2014a; 2014b). The archaeological picture that According to this new archaeological material, has been formulated using only the stray finds it can be assumed that extensive changes oc- differs significantly from the previously men- curred during the Late Iron Age in northern tioned research, which considers other sides Fennoscandia. These new archaeological finds of the culture as well. Several problems are can be connected to numerous aspects of the related to the use of stray finds alone: the re- societies: increasing numbers of dwelling sites searcher should be aware of all of the finds, not and changes in the structure of the dwelling only a random selection (in these publications, sites, the sieidis (sacred sites of the Sámi), and several generally known and even published the silver hoards. finds, such as iron arrowheads, are missing). The results of the new research on the Late One should consider also the research pub- Iron Age and early medieval period of north- lished in Sweden and Norway, because the in- ern Fennoscandia have been published widely land area of northern Fennoscandia comprises (e.g. Äikäs 2011; Äikäs et al. 2009; Carpelan Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia. The 2003; Halinen 2009; Halinen et al. 2013; overall picture of the inland zones would be Hamari 1996a; 1996b; 1998; Hedman 2003; more comprehensive and valid if analyses of Hedman & Olsen 2009; Karlsson 2006; Mulk international features were not limited by cur- 1994; Sommerseth 2009; Storli 1991; 1993). rent national borders (Finland). These studies have considered various avail- The archaeological traces of a society reflect able source materials. Some other recent pub- numerous aspects of life: dwellings, subsistence lications address only stray finds and do not (hunting methods, animal husbandry), religious consider dwelling sites or other types of sites expression, social relations, material culture, and at all (e.g. Hakamäki & Kuusela 2013; Kuusela so on. These aspects can all be observed, regis- 161 PETRI HALINEN Figure 2. The hearth row site at Kiellajoenkangas, Finland. The scale shows the amount of phosphate observed in samples: green 20‒40, yel- low 41‒60, brown 61‒80, orange 81‒100, light red 101‒120, red 121‒140, dark red 141‒159 P mg/l. Map: K. Nordqvist. tered, and classified from their own perspectives; sible on the ground, and up to 0.5 m high. The however, it is difficult to classify them in such a Stallo sites are located in the high mountainous way that they are comparable to one another, al- zone. In this study, the primary focus is on the though it is possible to draw various aspects into rectangular or, in some cases, oval stone set- discussion separately or together and to consider tings. their effects on the overall picture. The purpose Over the course of research history, the of this article is to bring the Late Iron Age and rectangular stone settings were not always early medieval archaeological material of north- identified as the remains of dwellings. In the ern Fennoscandia into the discussion and create 1960s, Povl Simonsen excavated stone settings a comprehensive picture of the Sámi society. The in Juntavadda in Kautokeino and Assebakte in material included consists of dwelling sites, their Karasjok in Finnmark and interpreted them as structure, chronology, and variability, and the graves that were strongly influenced by eastern archaeological features that can be connected to societies and religions (Simonsen 1979). Since these dwelling sites and to the means of liveli- the 1980s and 1990s, the settings have been hood of the people who lived in and used them. interpreted nearly unanimously as hearths or fireplaces (Storli 1991; 1993). However, 2 The dwelling sites Simonsen (1997) maintained his grave inter- pretation at least in some cases in Juntavadda The Late Iron Age and early medieval dwel- and Assebakte. In this study, the hearth inter- ling sites of inland northern Fennoscandia pretation is generally accepted, although hu- are primarily rectangular stone settings (Fig. man remains have been discovered in some 1) and so-called Stallo sites. The rectangular hearths (Hedman 2003). This type of hearth stone settings are located in the forest zone, vi- most likely belonged to a dwelling with a light 162 THE INLAND SÁMI SOCIETIES OF NORTHERN FENNOSCANDIA DURING THE LATE IRON AGE AND EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD construction (goahti), because no visible con- only – without the boassjo stone – small stones, struction or embankments can be identified the size of which varied between 5 and 15 cm, around them, and in some cases the systematic which is an exception in the case of a rectangu- distribution of bone refuse and the high phos- lar hearth (Halinen 2008a; 2008b; 2008c). phate values suggest the same kind of goahti The boassjo is noted for its larger number (Halinen 2009; Halinen et al. 2013; Hedman of finds and high phosphate values (Halinen 2003; Mulk 1994). 2009; Halinen et al. 2013; Hedman & Olsen The hearths are often located side by side 2009). The majority of the preserved bones (Fig. 2). They form smaller (1‒4) or larger and other find categories have been unearthed (5‒10) groups. Close to the hearths is a thin in connection with the boassjo. Sometimes the cultural layer with a varying number of finds. phosphate values near the uksa are also high. Generally the size of a hearth varies from 100 When compared to the phosphate values of to 250 cm in length, 50 to 150 cm in width, and younger fireplaces with arms (from 1450‒1900 1 to 50 cm in thickness. Pirjo Hamari measured CE), the phosphate values form the same type the average size of the hearths in Finland as of distribution as in rectangular hearths and as 1.65 x 1.05 m (Hamari 1996a: 25‒26, Appendix expected on the basis of ethnographic sources III). One of the largest hearths, sized 264 x 145 (Halinen 2009) (Fig. 3). x 24 cm (Halinen 2009), was excavated in Inari The rectangular or in some cases oval Kiellajoenkangas (148010798). Generally there hearths may be low, only 10‒15 cm high, or is no soil on the stone settings; however, be- higher, up to nearly 50 cm. Often the hearths tween the stones there is often fine-grained soil were built in one go and did not accumu- that includes traces of fire: fire-cracked stones, late gradually over time. This conclusion is red sand, charcoal, ash, or burned bone. The based on the rate of fire-induced cracking of size of the stones in a setting varies; the larg- the stones: on the top layer, the stones are ex- est stones are at the narrow end, which faces tremely cracked; however, the bottom layer north or farther away from the lake.