Contents LIST OF MAPS XXXV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXXvii PREFACE xli ACKNOWLEDGMENTS liii GENERAL INTRODUCTION Art, Play, and the Comparative Study of Religion 1 JACK MILES HINDUISM 53 Introduction: The Zen Diagram of Hinduism 55 WENDY DONIGER CHRONOLOGY 70 HINDUISM IN SANSKRIT, 1500 B.C.E.-1200 C.E. 77 Ancient Texts, 1500-200 B.C.E. 81 HUMANS, ANIMALS, AND GODS IN THE RIG VEDA, 1500-1000 B.C.E. 83 I Pray to Agni 89 Creation Hymn 89 Aditi and the Birth of the Gods 90 The Hymn of the Primeval Man 92 The Funeral Fire 94 vi I CONTENTS Burial Hymn 96 Varuna Provoked to Anger 98 Agastya and Lopamudra 99 Have Mercy on Us, Rudra 100 The Three Strides of Vishnu 101 SACRIFICE IN THE BRAHMANAS, 800-500 B.C.E. 103 Shatapatha Brahmana 104 Prajapati Creates Fire 104 The Fish Saves Manu from the Flood 105 Killing the Sacrificial Horse 106 Restoring the Horse 108 Jaiminiya Brahmana 109 How Men Changed Skins with Animals 110 Bhrigu's Journey in the Other World 111 The Gods Make Men Evil 113 RENUNCIATION IN THE UPANISHADS, 600-200 B.C.E. 115 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 117 The Creator Creates Death 118 Creation 120 Dreaming 121 The Origins of the Self 122 Chandogya Upanishad 123 The Self 123 Transmigration 124 Janashruti and Raikva 128 Shvetashvatara Upanishad 130 The Two Birds 130 THE DISCIPLINE OF MIND AND BODY IN THE YOGA-SUTRA OF PATANJALI, 150 B.C.E. 132 Quieting the Mind. 132 The Age of Ferment, 300 B.C.E-400 C.E. 137 DUTY AND DISASTER IN THE MAHABHARATA OF VYASA, 300 B.C.E.-300 C.E. 140 The Stripping of Draupadi 144 Ekalavya Cuts Off His Thumb 153 The Pandavas Go to Heaven, with a Dog 155 The Churning of the Ocean 159 The End of Female Promiscuity 164 The Karma of Dharma 166 The Dog Who Would Be Lion 168 King Shibi Saves the Dove from the Hawk 170 Daksha's Sacrifice 172 CONTENTS I vii OBLIGATION, LIBERATION, AND DEVOTION IN THE BHAGAVAD GITA, CA. 100 C.E. 176 Arjuna Questions Krishna 177 The Soul Does Not Die 185 The Two Paths 188 The True Nature of Action 190 The Path of Devotion 192 Salvation and Damnation 193 LOST LOVES AND TRAGIC MISTAKES IN THE RAMAYANA OF VALMIKI, 200 B.C.E.-200 C.E. 196 The Birth of Sita and the Bending of the Bow 199 Dasharatha Kills a Boy He Mistakes for an Elephant 202 The Gods Interrupt Shiva and Parvati 206 THE BRAHMINS EXPLAIN EVERYTHING IN THE SHASTRAS, 100-600 C.E. 210 Manu 212 To Eat or Not to Eat Meat 213 The Dependence of Women 215 Retribution in Rebirth 216 Charaka, Hiranyakeshin, and Varahamihira 220 The Etiology of Diseases 220 How to Perform a Funeral 223 How to Read the Stars 226 The Synthesis of Hinduism, 400-1200 C.E. 231 THE GODS—AND A GODDESS—IN THE PURANAS, 400-1200 C.E. 233 The Puranic World 235 The Fruits of Hearing a Purana: Devaraja the Sinner 235 The Four Ages 238 The Transfer of Karma in Hell 242 Shiva 244 The Origin of Linga Worship 245 How Rudra Destroys the Universe 248 Mankanaka Dances for Shiva 250 Vishnu 252 Vishnu as the Buddha 252 Vishnu as Kalki 255 Krishna 257 Krishna Kills the Ogress Putana 257 Krishna's Mother Looks Inside His Mouth 260 Devi, the Goddess 262 The Birth of the Goddess 263 The Death of the Buffalo Demon 266 Shrines and Pilgrimages 267 The Descent of the Ganges 268 The River Yamuna 269 viii I CONTENTS The Virtues of Varanasi 271 The Pilgrimage of Shiva to Varanasi 273 Yudhishthira at Prayaga 275 Medicine and Ethics 278 Embryology 278 Suffering 280 Hell 282 SECTS AND SEX IN THE TANTRAS 285 Tantric Points in the Body 286 The Tantric Gander 287 Terrifying Tantric Visions 288 The Five Elements of Tantric Ritual 289 Tantric Sins of Excess 291 THEOLOGY AND/OR PHILOSOPHY IN THE VEDANTA 295 Shankara Dreams 296 Ramanuja Dreams 299 The Man Who Built a House of Air 302 VERNACULAR HINDUISM IN SOUTH INDIA, 800-1800 C.E. 305 Tamil Finds its Many Voices, 800 to 1300 311 THE TIRUVAYMOLI ("SACRED SPOKEN WORD") OF NAMMALVAR 313 He Is Both the Crooked and the Straight 314 Worker of Miracles 314 You Do Stunts 315 Look Here 316 It's True 316 Talking of Monism 317 Kings Who Rule the Earth All Alone 318 Our Masters 318 Who Is He Possessing the Highest Good? 319 Beyond the Range 319 If You Say He Exists 320 He Is Diffused in Every Drop 320 People of This World 321 Lord of Shiva 321 He Became and Exists 321 The Whirling Age of Kali Ends 322 Monarch of Lions 322 Perhaps You Will Destroy My Sorrow 323 You Do Not Come 323 I Shall Die If You Go to Graze the Cows 324 You Were Gone the Whole Day 324 CONTENTS I ix THE TEVARAM ("GARLAND OF GOD") OF CUNTARAR 325 A Dog Am I 325 You Won't Remove the Fierce Karma 326 You Slew a Murderous Elephant 327 What Is the Use of Release? 327 You Kill Time Telling Lies 329 When I Hear Death Has Come 329 Can't You See How False They Are 330 I Placed Before Him 330 I Don't Call to Him as My Mother 331 THE PERIYA PVRANAM ("GREAT PURANA") OF CEKKILAR 332 Maran Feeds a Guest 333 Kannappar Gives His Eye to Shiva 335 THE CILAPPATIKARAM ("THE TALE OF AN ANKLET") OF ILANKO ATIKAL 346 Pattini Is Worshipped 347 Shiva's Warriors and Wives in Kannada, 800-1700 351 BASAVA AND THE VIRASHAIVAS 352 Shiva, You Have No Mercy 352 As a Mother Runs 353 The Master of the House 354 Does It Matter How Long 354 When a Whore with a Child 355 I Went to Fornicate 355 Don't You Take On 356 The Pot Is a God 356 The Rich Will Make Temples 357 MAHADEVIYAKKA: A VIRASHAIVA WOMAN POET-SAINT 358 My Body Is Dirt 358 Husband Inside 358 Who Cares 359 If One Could 360 People, Male and Female 360 Passion for God in Telugu, 1100-1300 363 THE BASAVA PURANA ("THE ANCIENT STORY OF BASAVA") OF PALKURIKISOMANATHA 364 The Story of the Eggplants That Became Lingas 365 The Herdswoman's Buttermilk Pot 365 The Foxes That Became Horses 366 I CONTENTS TEMPLE POEMS FROM TIRUPATI BY ANNAMAYYA 367 Why Cross the Boundary 367 Seeing Is One Thing 368 I'll Serve You as Best I Can 369 Lord, I Give Up 369 You Think I'm Someone Special 370 It's No Small Thing 371 I Was Better Off Then 372 POEMS BY KSHETRAYYA 373 A Courtesan to a Young Customer 373 A Courtesan to Her Lover 374 A Courtesan to Her Friend 375 A Married Woman to Her Lover 376 Falling at Shiva's Feet and Rama's Feet in Malayalam, 1850-1950 379 KUMAR AN ASAN 379 Feet Like Lotus Powder 380 Sita Lost in Thought 382 DIASPORA INTERLUDE: HINDUISM IN CAMBODIA, JAVA, AND BALI 388 The Sdok Kak Thorn Inscription 389 The Perfect Knowledge 391 The Romance of Arjuna and Ulupi 394 VERNACULAR HINDUISM IN NORTH INDIA, 800-1900 402 The Emergence of Hindi 407 THE BIJAK ("SEEDLING") OF KABIR 409 Saints, I've Seen Both Ways 410 Brother, Where Did Your Two Gods Come From? 411 That Con Man Hari 411 Here's How the World Fights against God 412 The Pandits' Pedantries Are Lies 413 Pandit, Look in Your Heart for Knowledge 413 Think, Pandit, Figure It Out 414 Hey Pandits, Who Didn't Die? 415 Pandit, Think Before You Drink 415 She Went with Her Husband 416 Beast-meat and Man-meat 417 It's a Heavy Confusion 418 CONTENTS I xi The Self Forgets Itself 418 Qazi, What Book Are You Lecturing On? 419 SURDAS 420 If You Drink the Milk 420 Far Off and Furtive 421 Look, My Friend 422 She's Found Him 422 Radha Is Lost 423 With Love There's Never a Thought 423 Black Storm Clouds 424 Gopal Has Slipped In 425 Thoughts of Him Stalk Me 425 Ever Since Your Name Has Entered 426 Having Seen Hari's Face 426 Madhav, Please, Control That Cow 427 MIRABAI 429 I'm Colored with the Color of Dusk 429 Life without Hari 430 The Bhil Woman Tasted Them 430 Sister, I Had a Dream 431 Oh, the Yogi 432 Let Us Go to a Realm Beyond Going 433 TULSI DAS 434 The Fire of My Stomach 434 It Is Said in Ancient Writings 435 A Blind, Mean-minded 436 Say Ram, Say Ram, Say Ram 437 The Name of King Ram 437 O Shiva, Great Giver 438 This Darkest of Ages 439 Ramcharitmanas ("The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama") 440 Sati Takes the Form of Sita 442 The Crow and Anasuya 445 The Mutilation of Shurpanakha 448 The Abduction of Sita 452 Tukaram of Maharashtra Says No! 1608-1649 459 GODS AND NOT SO HOLY MEN 461 I Was Only Dreaming 461 Insects in a Fig 462 I Pretend to Laugh 463 When My Father Died 463 I Was Held Captive 464 The Thug Has Arrived 465 God's Own Dog 466 xii I CONTENTS Lord You Could Become 466 With a Bizarrely Painted Face 467 The Great Mother of the Shakta 468 The Ascetic 468 Once There Was a Celibate Man 469 The Real Reason Why You Created 469 CASTE AND THE VARKARIS 470 By Caste and Lineage a Shudra 470 I've Not a Single Fraud 472 Good You Made Me a Kunbi 472 We Are Lucky! We Are Lucky! 473 I Feel Shame When People Honor Me 473 Born of Shudra Family 474 What Will I Gain by Remaining Deferent? 474 Oh Listen Now to Me 475 CRITIQUE OF BRAHMINS 476 He's Not a Brahmin Who Abhors 476 He Sells His Daughter, Cows, and Stories 476 The Cunning Grab for Coins 477 If You Don't Keep the Ashramas 478 Brahmachari Dharma Is Reciting the Vedas 478 Call Him Pandit, He's in Bliss 479 ILLUSION AND BHAKTI 480 It Is for This I Wander Wild 480 A God without a Devotee 481 Hari, You Are Cruel and without Qualities 481 I Gave Birth to Myself 482 We've Treated Moksha with Scorn Because 483 Silence in Speech, Life in Death 483 Brahma Is Illusion, Say the Crooks of Religion 484 Accumulating Wealth by a Noble Business 484 Avatar of Buddha, O My Invisible One 485 I've Built a House in Boundless Space 485 Love and Anger in Bengal, 1500-1872 487 JAYADEVA 490 The Ten Avatars of Vishnu 490 VIDYAPATI 493 The Necklace-Snake 493 Counterfeit 494 Let No One Be a Girl 494 My Body Hid My Body 495 As the Mirror to My Hand 495 Children, Wife, Friend 496 CONTENTS I xiii CHANDIDAS 497 What God Is That 497 He Was Black 498 It's No Use Telling Me 498 Mastering Sahaja Love 499 My