UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE FILOLOGÍA TESIS DOCTORAL Negation, indefinites, and polarity in early Greek and Indo- Iranian: a typological and comparative approach (Negación, indefinidos y polaridad en griego antiguo e indo- iranio: un estudio tipológico y comparativo) MEMORIA PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE DOCTOR PRESENTADA POR Juan Eugenio Briceño Villalobos Directores Juan Antonio Álvarez-Pedrosa Núñez Eugenio Ramón Luján Martínez Madrid © Juan Eugenio Briceño Villalobos, 2019 Programa de Doctorado de Estudios del Mundo Antiguo Facultad de Filología TESIS DOCTORAL Negation, indefinites, and polarity in early Greek and Indo-Iranian: a typological and comparative approach (Negación, indefinidos y polaridad en griego antiguo e indo-iranio: un estudio tipológico y comparativo) MEMORIA PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE DOCTOR PRESENTADA POR Juan Eugenio Briceño Villalobos Directores Juan Antonio Álvarez-Pedrosa Núñez Eugenio Ramón Luján Martínez Madrid, 2019 For my parents, Gladys and Pedro, to whom I owe everything. Acknowledgements There is not enough space in several books to openly show my gratitude to all those who supported me through this long journey called “writing a dissertation” and thanks to whom I am writing right now these truly heart-felt words. I must say it has been a challenging journey, but nevertheless, fascinating. Thus, in spite of said handicaps, I will endeavor in this small section to enumerate all those who I believe deserve written mention, since, as the poet said, verba volant, sed scrīpta mānent. First thing first and with my parents’ excuse, I must first express my gratitude to that person who was literally there for me all the way from the start until the last word written in these pages. I will be forever grateful to my partner Carmen Avendaño, who supported me through thick and thin, even though sometimes I made her face hazardous times. Without her and her unconditional love, cheering, and counseling, none of this would have been possible. To her, I dedicate these pages. Secondly, I cannot delay any further mentioning my parents, to whom I owe everything. Thanks to them I ended up studying abroad far from home, but with their hearts and souls always present, which have always led me through the right tracks of life. My eternal gratitude to them and to them I dedicate these pages. I must also make due mention of my family: to my sisters Carmen and Marcela Briceño, to my brothers Pedro and Pablo Briceño, to my niece Sofía and nephew Roberto Donoso, and, finally, to my brothers-in-law Ulises Hidalgo and Roberto Donoso, to them I also dedicate these pages. I must also show my gratitude for their unparalleled and constant support to my other ‘Spanish’ family: Javier Avendaño P., María José María, Francisco Folgoso, Luis Avendaño, Javier Avendaño, Magalí Rey, Elena Hernández, Vicente Folgoso, Manuel Folgoso, Ana Trashorras, Rafael de María, Belén de María, Rafael de María I., Blanca Alvalad, Paula Quintanilla, and Jon Ocio. Life without friends is no life, so I hasten to turn to that important group. I will be forever grateful to Pablo Rodríguez, Álvaro Cancela, Marco Enia, Sara Sánchez de Molina, Marcelo Morán, Gonzalo Jerez, Daniel Utzinger, Andrea Wilkendorf, Nicole Wilkendorf, Verónica Orqueda, Jessica Barros, Juan Pablo Morales, Fabián Romero, Rachele Pierini, Belén Salmerón, Melodía García, Sara Santana, Vera Wolkowicz, Erika Marsal, Alexandra IV Llado, Álvaro Ruiz, Melanie Trüssel, Tatiana Giraldo, Pedro Redondo, Marta Martínez, Carlos Martínez, Eduardo Ezkurra-Fernández, Ángel López, Marina Solís de Ovando, Sandra Cruz, Marta Lezcano, Inmaculada Hernández-Tejero, Clara de Jorge, Soraya Planchas, Silvia Maiorana, Samuel Jara, Nicolás Peinado, Borja Camacho, Pablo Lomas, Julia Aguilar, María Flores, Nacho Sanz, Daniel Ayora, Macarena Sánchez, Alejandro Abad, Juan Piquero, Paloma Guijarro, Iván Andrés, Natalia Elvira, Marta Vicente, Macarena García. My Persian alter ego deserves special mention, Milad Abedi, and the rest of the internationals: Kate Bellamy, Anastasia Ionova, Chams Bernard, Stefan Norbruis, Xander Veertegal, Michele Bianconi, Francesco Burroni, Axel Palmer, Matilde Garré, Laura Nastasi, Dennis Fucci, Luka Repanšek, Marta Campano, Aljoša Šorgo, Oscar Billing, and Guglielmo Inglese. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my two supervisors, Juan Antonio Álvarez-Pedrosa and Eugenio Luján who, despite my constant delays and tardiness, knew, nevertheless, how to keep me on the right track with their constant support and counsel. To them, I also dedicate these pages. Without them, this dissertation would have never been possible. V INDEX Declaración de autoría i Acknowledgements iv Index vi English Summary xiI Resumen en español xiv Standard abbreviations xvii List of tables, figures, and maps xx CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Objectives 1 1.2 Corpus 4 1.3 Theoretical framework 6 1.4 Typological framework 8 1.4.1 Standard negation 9 1.4.1.1 Prohibitive negative marker 9 1.4.1.2 Negation and modality 10 1.4.1.3 Typology of standard negation 11 1.4.1.4 Constituent and sentential negation 14 1.4.1.5 Scope, focus, and position of negation 15 1.4.2 Negative indefinites and polarity 19 1.4.2.1 Sources of indefinites and the origin of negative indefinites 19 1.4.2.2 Negative Concord: n-words and NPIs 21 1.4.2.3 Negative indefinites’ true nature 23 1.4.2.4 Typology of (negative) indefinites 23 1.4.2.5 Negative polarity items and free-choice items 26 1.4.3 Negative coordinates 33 1.4.4 Other related phenomena: Bipartite Negation and Jespersen Cycle 36 1.4.5 Negation and Contact 37 VI 1.5 Methodology 38 1.6 Indo-European negation, indefinites, and instrumentals 39 CHAPTER 2: GREEK INDEFINITES AND POLARITY 2. Introduction 49 2.1 Negation and Indefinites in Homeric Greek 50 2.1.1 Myc. negative markers and the origins of Greek negation 50 2.1.2 Negation in Homeric Greek: sentential negation, position and modality 63 2.2 Negation, polarity, and indefinites in Homer 67 2.2.1 Specific indefinites 69 2.2.1.1 Specific unknown indefinite: τις “someone, something, some” 70 2.2.1.2. Specific known indefinite, ὅς τε “someone who, something that” 71 2.2.1.3 Numeral one: εἷς 74 2.2.2 Non-specific irrealis indefinites 75 2.2.3 Polarity Items 76 2.2.3.1 τις, τι “anyone, anything, any” 76 2.2.3.2 ἄλλος τις and πότερος 80 2.2.3.3 Particle *kwi in Homer 81 2.2.4 Free-choice: τις, ὅς τις, and ὅς κε 83 2.2.4.1 The indefinite-relative ὅς τις 83 2.2.4.2 τις as nominal free-choice item 89 2.2.4.3 The indefinite-relative ὅς κε(ν) 92 2.3 Negative scalar focus particles οὐδέ and οὔτε and negative indefinites 99 2.4 Indefinite adverbs in Homeric Greek 107 2.4.1 *kwó-te > ποτε “sometime, anytime” 108 2.4.2 *kwó-dhi > ποθί “somewhere, probably” and *kwó-dhe(-n) > ποθέν “from some place”. 109 2.4.3 *kwéso > που “somewhere; possibly, perhaps” 109 2.4.4 The instrumental -h1 and the rise of strong negative polarity adverbs 111 w 2.4.4.1 *k é-h1 > πῃ “anywhere; in anyway” 112 w 2.4.4.2 *k ó-h1-s > πως “in any way” 113 w 2.4.4.3 *k ó-h1 > πω: “yet; at all, in any way” 114 VII 2.5 Summary 115 CHAPTER 3: INDO-IRANIAN INDEFINITES AND POLARITY 3 Introduction 117 3.1 Negation in Indo-Iranian 119 3.1.1 Negative forms 119 3.1.2 Correlative Negation 123 3.1.3 Modality and placement of negation 127 3.2 Indefinites in Indo-Iranian 128 3.2.1 Interrogatives pronouns and the absence of specific indefinites 128 3.2.2 Non-specific indefinite pronouns 132 3.2.2.1 Free-choice 132 3.2.2.1.1 Particles *ča and *čit and their functions 132 3.2.2.1.2 Ved. káś cid /Av. kascit̰ /OP. kasciy, Av. kataracit̰ , Ved. káti cid, Ved. sama-. 134 3.2.2.1.3 Ved. yád cid, YAv. yat̰ cit̰ , OP. yaci 136 3.2.2.1.4 Ved. yá- ka/kim-ca, Av. ya-ka/ci-ca/cit̰ , OP kā haya, kasci haya 138 3.2.2.1.5 Correlative-relative constructions: *(H)yó-…., // só-/tó- 142 3.2.2.1.5 Reduplication of the pronominal stem 143 3.2.2.2 Polarity in early Indo-Iranian languages 145 3.2.2.2.1 *čana as a negative polarity marker 145 3.2.2.2.2 Ved. káś caná and kátara caná 149 3.2.2.2.3 Ved. káś cid and OP. kasci, cišci 149 3.2.2.2.4 Ved. ékas caná, YAv. aēuua-cina, OP *aiva-cina 150 3.2.2.2.5 Polarity indefinites without particles: Ved. sama- and Ved. káś-/ci-, O/YAv. ka/ci-, OAv. aēuuā 152 3.2.2.2.6 Negative pronouns: Ved. nákis, OAv. naēcīš, YAv. naēciš 156 3.2.3 Indefinite adverbs in Indo-Iranian 161 3.2.3.1 Existential indefinite adverb 161 3.2.3.2 Free-choice 161 VIII 3.2.3.2.1 YAv. kuuacit̰ , Ved. kutaś cid , Ved. kutra cid, Ved. kádā cid 161 3.2.3.2.2 Indefinite relatives adverbs 162 3.2.3.2.3 Repetition of the pronominal stem 163 3.2.3.2.4 Negative polarity adverbs: YAv. kaθacina, Ved. kútaś caná, Ved. kádā́ caná, and YAv. kudat̰ 163 3.3 Summary 164 CHAPTER 4: INDEFINTES AND POLARITY IN OTHER IE LANGUAGES 4 Introduction 167 4.1 Indefinites and polarity in other early IE languages 168 4.1.1 Latin and Sabellian indefinites 168 4.1.2 Hittite indefinites 172 4.1.3 Armenian indefinites 175 4.1.4 Gothic indefinites 176 4.2 “Indeterminate” correlative constructions in Anatolian and other IE correlative constructions 178 4.3 *-kwe in conditionals and relative indefinites 181 4.4 Strong polarity items in Latin 188 4.5 Instrumental suffixes and their relationship with negative markers and conditional conjunctions 191 4.6 Summary 197 CHAPTER 5: NEGATION AND INDEFINITES IN ACHAEMENID ELAMITE 5 Achaemenid Elamite 199 5.1.