Chanting up Zion: Reggae as Productive Mechanism for Repatriated Rastafari in Ethiopia David Aarons A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2017 Reading Committee: Shannon Dudley, Chair Giulia Bonacci Katell Morand Christina Sunardi Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Music i @Copyright 2017 David Aarons ii University of Washington Abstract Chanting up Zion: Reggae as Productive Mechanism for Repatriated Rastafari in Ethiopia David Aarons Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Shannon Dudley Ethnomusicology Since the 1960s, Rastafari from Jamaica and other countries have been “returning” to Ethiopia in the belief that it is their Promised Land, Zion. Based on extensive ethnographic research in Ethiopia between 2015 and 2017, this project examines the ways in which repatriated Rastafari use music to transform their Promised Land into a reality amidst various challenges. Since they are denied legal citizenship, Rastafari deploy reggae in creative and strategic ways to gain cultural citizenship and recognition in Ethiopia. This research examines how reggae music operates as a productive mechanism, that is, how human actors use music to produce social and tangible phenomena in the world. Combining theories on music’s productive capabilities with Rastafari ideologies on word-sound, this research further seeks to provide deeper insight into the ways Rastafari effect change through performative arts. I examine how Rastafari mobilize particular discourses that both challenge and reproduce hegemonic systems, creating space for themselves in Ethiopia through music. Rastafari use reggae in strategic ways to insert themselves into the contested national narratives of Ethiopia, and participate in the practice of space-making in Addis Ababa and Shashemene through sound projects. I argue that music activities form the basis of social interaction for the repatriated iii Rastafari community and in turn produce and reproduce this community. I also discuss the work of Ethiopian reggae musicians who engage in reggae production for different reasons, but whose actions shape the returnees’ realities as well. Reggae in Ethiopia therefore serves as a productive mechanism by facilitating the creation of social relationships, spaces that lead to visibility, ideologies that connect Rastafari with Ethiopia, income for returnees, and opportunities for development—important factors that make the Promised Land habitable. iv Acknowledgements There are many people and institutions without whom I would not have been able to complete this dissertation. I would like to thank the organizations at the University of Washington (UW) that provided funding for my research in Ethiopia. These include the Fritz and Boeing International Dissertation Research Fellowship and the Ottenberg Winnans Fellowship for Research in Africa. The UW School of Music also for provided funding through course work and the writing process. Thanks to the Institute for Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa University and the Centre français des études éthiopiennes for assisting with my Ethiopian visa. Many thanks to my reading committee who provided unwavering support and helpful feedback: Shannon Dudley, Giulia Bonacci, Katell Morand, and Christina Sunardi. To my graduate cohort at the UW School of Music who pushed me to think more critically and provided freshly-baked cookies in times of need, I thank you. I spent much time reasoning with Rastafari, musicians, and scholars whose thoughts significantly impacted my ideas and to whom I am most grateful. Some of these include Kofi Ababio, Kenneth Bilby, Patricia Campbell, Louis Chude-Sokei, Ray Hitchins, Jahnoch, Mark Joseph, Barbara Lalla, Morgan Luker, Erin Macleod, Girum Mezmur, Mette Petersen, and Mathew Tembo. I also would like to acknowledge Christine Smith-Stone for hosting me in Addis Ababa upon my arrival and Tariqwa for making sure I was comfortable in Shashemene. “Give thanks” to the Rastafari and non-Rastafari musicians in Ethiopia with whom I performed. Nuff respek to all ah yuh for welcoming me into your music spaces and allowing me to perform with and learn from you—especially Sydney Salmon and the Imperial Majestic Band and Ras Kawintseb and the Aetiofrika Band. Finally, thanks to Elsie and John Aarons for decades of support and encouragement. v Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Rastafari ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Return to Ethiopia ....................................................................................................................... 5 The Power and Practice of Rastafari Word-Sound: Framing the Study ..................................... 14 Rastafari Music .......................................................................................................................... 20 Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 27 Interpreting Data ....................................................................................................................... 28 Returnee Bands with whom I performed ................................................................................... 29 Positionality ............................................................................................................................... 31 Chapter Outline ......................................................................................................................... 32 Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 34 Songs about Zion: Reggae as Discourse and Discourses on Reggae ...................................... 34 Black Nationalism, Pan-Africanism, and Music ........................................................................ 36 Reggae Music as Discourse on Africa/Ethiopia, and Repatriation .............................................. 39 Desires for Elsewhere ................................................................................................................. 41 Repertoire Analysis .................................................................................................................... 43 Discourse on the Songs ............................................................................................................... 63 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 68 Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 70 Adapting to and Shaping New Realities: Repatriated Musicians and Sonic Strategies of Belonging ..................................................................................................................................... 70 Strictly Roots! Whose Roots? ..................................................................................................... 74 New Songs in Zion and Sonic Essences of Ethiopianness ............................................................ 79 Ethiopianness ........................................................................................................................... 80 Amharic .................................................................................................................................. 82 Scales ...................................................................................................................................... 83 Singing New Songs ..................................................................................................................... 87 Promoting the Teachings of Haile Selassie ................................................................................. 89 The Everyday: Living in the Promised Land, Life in the Promised Land ...................................... 93 Senses of Belonging/ Narratives of Inclusion ............................................................................. 95 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 99 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................... 101 Musical Sites of Contact and Inscription in Shashemene and Addis Ababa ...................... 101 Placing Rastafari and Reggae in Ethiopia ................................................................................ 103 Shashemene Soundscapes: Creating Spaces and Senses of Place in Shashemene ...................... 107 Reggae Spaces in Addis Ababa ................................................................................................. 116 Creating Reggae and Rastafari Spaces in Addis Ababa ............................................................. 123 vi One-Time Spaces ................................................................................................................... 128 Virtual Spaces .......................................................................................................................... 130 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................