Current Directions in Psychological Science Retrieval-Based Learning: Active 21(3) 157 –163 © The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permission: Retrieval Promotes Meaningful Learning sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0963721412443552 http://cdps.sagepub.com Jeffrey D. Karpicke Purdue University Abstract Retrieval is the key process for understanding learning and for promoting learning, yet retrieval is not often granted the central role it deserves. Learning is typically identified with the encoding or construction of knowledge, and retrieval is considered merely the assessment of learning that occurred in a prior experience. The retrieval-based learning perspective outlined here is grounded in the fact that all expressions of knowledge involve retrieval and depend on the retrieval cues available in a given context. Further, every time a person retrieves knowledge, that knowledge is changed, because retrieving knowledge improves one’s ability to retrieve it again in the future. Practicing retrieval does not merely produce rote, transient learning; it produces meaningful, long-term learning. Yet retrieval practice is a tool many students lack metacognitive awareness of and do not use as often as they should. Active retrieval is an effective but undervalued strategy for promoting meaningful learning. Keywords retrieval processes, learning, education, metacognition, meaningful learning If you know something, or if you have stored informa- understanding learning, coupled with the importance of active tion about an event from the distant past, and never use retrieval for producing learning, is referred to as retrieval- that information, never think of it, your brain is func- based learning. tionally equivalent to that of an otherwise identical brain that does not “contain” that information. —Endel Tulving (1991) Learning Based on the Design of the Mind We often think of our minds as places in our heads, mental To understand learning, it is essential to understand the pro- spaces or containers where we store knowledge. Roediger cesses involved in retrieving and reconstructing knowledge. We (1980) noted that for centuries, most metaphors used to may think we know something, that our minds contain or pos- describe mental processes have characterized the mind as a sess some knowledge, but the only way to assess knowledge is physical space and knowledge as physical things in that by engaging in an act of retrieval. Differences in the ability to space—for example, by likening our minds to libraries filled recover knowledge may not stem from what is “stored” in our with books or cabinets loaded with files (see too Moscovitch, minds but rather from differences in the retrieval cues available 2007). In education, the metaphor of a physical building is in particular contexts. Given the fundamental importance of often used to describe the mind and knowledge. Knowledge is retrieval for understanding the process of learning, it is surpris- constructed by learners who actively build knowledge struc- ing that retrieval processes have not received more attention in tures; researchers seek to understand the architecture of the educational research. Consider that over the past decade, many mind; and instructors aid students by providing scaffolding for influential National Research Council books on how people learning. learn have contained no mention of retrieval (National Research When minds are viewed as places for storing knowledge, it Council, 2000, 2005a, 2005b). is natural to focus attention on processes involved in It is essential to consider retrieval processes not only constructing new knowledge in storage. Educational research because they are central to understanding learning but also because the act of retrieval itself is a powerful tool for enhanc- Corresponding Author: ing learning. Moreover, active retrieval does not merely Jeffrey D. Karpicke, Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, produce rote, transient learning; it produces meaningful, long- 703 Third St., West Lafayette, IN 47907-2081 term learning. The idea that retrieval is the centerpiece for E-mail: [email protected] 158 Karpicke and instructional practices have placed a premium on identify- would you want to do next? You have three options: You can ing the best ways to encode knowledge and experiences. (a) go back and restudy either all of the material or parts of it, Retrieval processes, the processes involved in using available (b) try to recall the material without restudying afterward, or cues to actively reconstruct knowledge, have received less (c) do something else. Which would you choose? attention. There seems to be a tacit assumption that successful We (Karpicke, Butler, & Roediger, 2009) gave this ques- encoding or construction of knowledge, in itself, is sufficient tion to a large group of college students. Most students (57%) to ensure learning. said they would reread their notes or textbook, and 21% said Basic research on learning and memory, however, has they would do something else. Only 18% said they would emphasized that retrieval must be considered in any analysis attempt to recall material after reading it.1 The decision to of learning. In part, this is because people do not store static, repeatedly read makes sense if we identify learning with pro- exact copies of experiences that are reproduced verbatim at cesses of encoding and constructing knowledge and consider retrieval. Instead, knowledge is actively reconstructed on the retrieval to be only a way to assess prior learning. It stands to basis of the present context and available retrieval cues reason that more studying (i.e., more encoding and knowledge (Bartlett, 1932; Neisser, 1967; see too Moscovitch, 2007; construction) should produce more learning, whereas retrieval Roediger, 2000). The reconstructive nature of mind is revealed should measure learning but not produce it. in the systematic errors people make in retrieving knowledge, Would students be better off repeatedly reading than engag- errors that verbatim recording devices would not make. The ing in retrieval? We conducted an experiment with a design past never occurs again in its exact form, so a mental store- that mirrored the question asked in the survey (Roediger & house of copies of past experiences would be of little use. Karpicke, 2006b). Students read educational texts and recalled People instead have the ability to use the past to meet the them under one of three conditions. One group of students demands of the present by reconstructing knowledge rather spent time repeatedly studying a text in four study periods. A than reproducing it exactly. second group read a text in three study periods and then What people express when they reconstruct knowledge recalled it in one retrieval period (labeled SSSR), in which the depends on the retrieval cues available in a given context. Ulti- students wrote down as many ideas from the text as they could mately, knowledge reconstruction depends on the diagnostic recall. A third group read the text during one study period and value of cues, the degree to which cues help people recover then practiced recalling it during three consecutive repeated particular target information to the exclusion of competing retrieval periods. Students did not reread the text or receive candidates (Nairne, 2002; Raaijmakers & Shiffrin, 1981). We any feedback after any of the recall periods; they only prac- may wish to examine what a person has constructed or stored ticed actively retrieving material. in mind, but it is impossible to directly assess the contents of At the end of the learning phase, the students made a judg- storage, per se. We can only ever examine what a person ment of learning: a prediction of how well they would remem- reconstructs given the available cues and context (Roediger, ber the material in the future. Then, one week later, students 2000; Roediger & Guynn, 1996; Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966). recalled the material again to see how much they actually Thus, it is essential to consider retrieval processes in any anal- retained in the long term. ysis of learning. Figure 1b shows students’ judgments of learning. The more The second crucial reason retrieval is important for learn- times students repeatedly read the material, the better they ing is that learning is altered by the act of retrieval itself. Every believed they had learned it. However, Figure 1a shows that time a person retrieves knowledge, that knowledge is changed, students’ actual learning exhibited the opposite pattern. The because retrieving knowledge improves one’s ability to more times students practiced actively retrieving the material, retrieve it again in the future (Karpicke & Roediger, 2007, the better they retained it in the long term. Students spent the 2008; Karpicke & Zaromb, 2010). This is a feature of a func- same amount of time experiencing the material in all three tional learning and memory system. Our minds are sensitive to conditions, and students in the repeated-retrieval condition the likelihood that we will need knowledge at a future time, only recalled and did not restudy the text, yet active retrieval and if we retrieve something in the present, there is a good produced the best long-term retention (for further discussion chance we will need to recover it again. The process of retrieval of metacognitive awareness of the effects of retrieval practice, itself alters knowledge in anticipation of demands we may see Karpicke & Grimaldi, 2012). encounter in the future. Retrieval is therefore not only a tool Returning to the survey of student learning strategies for assessing learning but also a tool for enhancing learning (Karpicke et al., 2009), one might think the results would (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a). change if we reworded the survey question. Namely, students might choose to engage in active retrieval if they could reread after attempting retrieval. In a second version of the survey, Repeated Retrieval Enhances we asked students the exact question described above, but Long-Term Learning changed option (b) to say, “try to recall the material, and then Imagine you are studying for an upcoming exam.