IJNIT 27 POST-REVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS, 1911-19 Objectives Introduction Political Instability Post-Yuan Events Warlords and Warlordism 27.4.1 Armies, Cliques and Polity 27.4.2 The Wars 27.4.3 Warlords and Foreign Powers 27.4.4 View from Peking Warlordism and Chinese Society Emergence of the Kuomintang The May Fourth Movement Let Us Sum Up Key Words Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises - -27.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this Unit you should be able to: explain why the Revolution of 1911 failed to establish a better political system in China, know the reasons behind the emergence of militarism in China, a blow aboutthe emergence ~f Kuomintang as a political force and its failure to become a mass based party, and understand the genesis of the May Fourth Movement and it's revolutionary character. - -27. B INTRODUCTION Dynastic rule came to an end in China in 1911. Historians have called this event a revohtion. In the area of politics, the end of the monarchy was animportant event but for the Chinese people as a whole, the Revolution of 1911did not in any significant way make much difference. Nonetheless, the period between 1911-19 is characterised by many events and developments which had a long-term impact. This period is marked by political strife, instability and disunity leading to the emergence of Warlords, which in turn threatened the unity of the Chinese nation. Some efforts were made towards a constitutional democracy in the early years of the so-called Republic, but they failed. The Kuomintang (KMT), which had given up its secret society characteristics and had participated actively in the overthrow of the Manchu regime, passed through many trials and tribulations. It emerged as a strong political force in the ensuring years. However, the most crucial historical event during the 19 11-19 period was the occurrence of a socio-cultural movement (This has been discussed in detail in Unit 28) spearheaded by intellectuals, beginning about 1915 and reaching a climax in May Fourth Movement, as it came to be called. It resulted in the birth of the Chinese Communist Party (in 1921). In addition to these internal developments, two events outside its borders made significant impact in China: 1) First, the outbreak of the First World War in Europe culminating in the &feat of Germany and Japan's claim over Germany's fonner possessions in China. (We have already discussed the Twenty One Demands in Unit 21). P*R-dutkury China. 1911-21 2) Second, the victory of the October Revolution in Russia. The Bolshevik revolution inspired th~Chinese a great deal. The new Soviet state voluntarily renunciated some of the unequal treaties signed earlier. This endeared the Soviets immediately to the Chinese and thus began a long period of Soviet-Chinese collaboration. Generally speaking, the 191 1-19 period strengthened the resolve of the Chinese people to struggle against imperialism resulting in the emergence of a determined and resilient nationalism. This Unit goes on to discuss the period of Warlordism in China, the emergence of Kuomfntang and its spread and the May 4th incident. 27.2 POLITICAL INSTABILITY On January 1,1912 the new government of the Chinese Republic was established in Nanking with Sun Yat-Sen as the provisional president. On the other hand Yuan Shi Kai the former Commander of Manchu Forces (who created the New Army but had fallen out of favour from the Manchu Court in 1909) aspired to become China's ruler. As the Manchu Court had not yet resigned formally, Yuan, who had sufficient military support, bargained and manoeuvred with the Nanking government. On February 12, the Manchu Court abdicated and Sun Yat-Sen resigned in favour of Yuan. The Republican government moved to Pekingand Yuan Shi Kai was elected its provisional president. Sun Yat-Sen, before he gave up his presidentship, was able to have a new Provisional Constitution passed. This constitution had in it a bill of rights and a cabinet form of government. This implied that President Yuan was to have acabinet responsible to the Legislative Assembly. The Revolutionaries (i.e. Sun's comrades) were in a majority in this Assembly. The idta was to have the cabinet as a check on Yuan's personal ambitions. The Republican regime at Peking, thus became operative on April 1,1912. In theory, this regime lasted till 1928 but in reality it was a mockery of the republican system. Soon after assuming office Yuan proposed the name of Tang Shao-yi as head of the . Cabinet or Premier, in accordance with the newly-promulgated Provisional Constitution. Tang was both an old associate of Yuan and also close to the Kuomintang Revolutionaries. he names of cabinet ministries proposed by Tang were approved by the Assembly. This seemed a good beginning and there were hopes that a workable unity between the two groups i.e. Sun's revolutionaries and older (including military) elements of the North would be achieved. But we must remember that Yuan Shi Kai's ambitions wete in direct conflict with the constitutional system where power is shared between several individuals. Yuan's supporters comprised of Mandarins of the Manchu Court, reformists of the earlier period and his own military and civilian henchmen. He had full backing of the army commanders ofzhe New Army which he had created. Tang Shao-yi had a relatively thinner bask of support. Almost immediately after the formation of the cabinet, Yuan began to disagree with him over matters of appointments and policie's. Yuan's uncooperative attitkde went so far that within three months Tang quit the cabinet in disgust. Cabinets made after this were largely of Yuan's followers and bureaucrats.The Legislative Assembly which right away did not want a showdown with Yuan grudgingly gave its support to the cabinet. In the winter of 1912-13elections were held for parliament. This was an opportunity for the revolutionaries, now reorganized as the Kuomintang, to peacefully eliminate Yuan's influence. As expected they won a majority in both houses of the Parliament and their parliamentary leader, Sung Chiao-jen, was all set to head a cabinet. On March 10, 1913 while boarding a train for Peking at the Shanghai railway station, he was assassinated. It produced shocks all over thecountry. Yuan, in a routine form, ordered an enquiry into the assassination. About the same time Yuan had been trying to get a loan from.foreign bankers which was crucial for China's collapsing economy. The day t.he fundings of the enquiry were made puhlic directly implicating President Yuan in the assassination, he announced the agreement of foreign bankers to grant the much-needed loan. This mav have diverted the attention of some but between the Kuomintang and yuan Shi Kai it meant permanent parting of ways. The latter started to act arbitrarily, often overriding the parliament. Even the negotiations for the foreign ht-~dtby~crdbpuw, sd-is loan (called the Reorganization loan) were done without its consent. For Yuan, however, the sanctioning of the Reorganization loan meant final recognition of his government by foreign powers. His crime went unpunished. The imperialist powers also preferred a dictator and manipulator to a popular leader for very obvious reasons. Prior to Sung's assassination, the KMTleaders were not united in their attitude towards 'Yuan but this heinous crime united them all in condemning him. In July 1913 Kh4T governors who controlled some southern provinces revolted. Emboldened by foreign recognition Yuan took on the KMT, dismissed the military governors allied to it, $uppressed their rebellion, dissolved the KMT as a political organization, suspended the Parliament and then abolished provincial assemblies and local councils. He declared himself president for life and also announced that he would restore monarchy and start his own dynasty. Yuan got a new Provisional constitution enacted in 1914 which made k is rule supreme, unchecked by law. The ultimate aim of this constitution was to restore monarchy in China with Yuan as the new emperor. While all this was going on Japan made on China the notorious Twenty One Demands and Yuan had, on principle, acceded to them. It is, therefore, believed that there was Japanese compliance in the nioves made by Yuan (See Unit 21). His scheme, however, united the Revolutionaries and the Moderate Progressives (under Liang Chi-Chao). Acampaign against him, raising the slogan "Protection of the Republic" was launched all over the country. Provinces started declaring th~ir independence from the Peking regime and anti-monarchical expeditions led by KMT generals and the progressives began. The movement was so intense that.Yuan Shi Kai h,ad to annul all his monarchical decrees by March 1916. He continued to form his presidential duties as thoughnothing had happened. The Yuan Shi Kai chapter in Chinese history ended with his death (due to natural causes) in June 1916. POST-YUAN EVENTS At Yuan's death, the Vice-President Li Yuanhung was made President anb attempts were made to revive the Provisional constitution of 1912. In theyears 1916 and 1917 the Parliament was 3 sharply divided group. On the one hand were those allied to the KMT and the progressives opposed to one another and on the other hand, President Li and Premier Tuan Chi-jui had serious differences of opinion. The issues over which opinions were divided centered around the kind of-constitution China should adopt and if it sfiould join the Allied powers to declare war against Germany. The controversy reached such a point that President Li dismissed Premier Tuan as the majority in the Parliainent was opposed to him. Tuan too was a product of the New Army and a top leader of the Northern military.