Saviour of the Language? The Role and Impact of the Welsh Bible Anastasia Llewellyn A thesis in The Département d’études françaises Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Translation Studies) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada March 2018 © Anastasia Llewellyn, 2018 Llewellyn ii CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY School of Graduate Studies This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Anastasia Llewellyn Entitled: Saviour of the Language? The Role and Impact of the Welsh Bible and submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Translation Studies) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final Examining Committee: _______________________________ Chair Christine York _______________________________ External Examiner Shannon McSheffrey _______________________________ Internal Examiner Paul F. Bandia _______________________________ Supervisor Judith Woodsworth Approved by ________________________________________________________ Chair of Department or Graduate Program Director March 2018 __________________________________________ Dean of Faculty Saviour of the Language? iii Abstract Although translation played a critical role in the survival of the Welsh language, Wales has been sorely underrepresented in the field of translation studies. The publication of the 1588 Welsh Bible, the result of a political gamble by Elizabeth I, was a turning point in the survival of the Welsh vernacular. At a time when Welsh was banned from use in public life, the Welsh Bible played a fundamental part in the development of Welsh language and culture. In assessing the cultural, political, and religious reverberations of the Welsh Bible, we espouse an approach similar to those of Delisle and Woodsworth, and Berman, taking into consideration the importance of the socio-political context in which a translation occurs. We touch briefly on Tudor language policy, and its rationale. We examine more specifically the results of Elizabeth I’s decision to prioritize religious uniformity over linguistic uniformity. In affording Welsh-speakers a crucial venue for the use of their own language, Elizabeth inadvertently ensured that Welsh would continue to play a role in daily life in Wales. Owing in no small part to the quality of the translation and the background of the translators, the Welsh Bible, and its ubiquity, were vital in securing the continued existence of the language, through normalization and codification, and, further, were key to redefining the Welsh literary system. Drawing on Jauss’s notion of the horizon of expectation and Toury’s work on polysystem theory, we evaluate the lasting impact of this translation on Wales. Llewellyn iv Résumé Malgré le rôle important qu’a joué la traduction dans la survie de la langue galloise, le Pays de Galles n’a pas fait couler beaucoup d’encre dans le domaine de la traductologie. La publication de la Bible galloise de 1588, résultat d’un pari politique de la part d’Élisabeth Ire, fut un moment décisif pour la survie du vernaculaire gallois. À une époque où l’emploi du gallois était interdit dans la vie publique, la Bible galloise joua un rôle fondamental dans le développement de la langue et de la culture galloises. Nous évaluons les retentissements culturels, politiques et religieux de la Bible galloise, adoptant une approche semblable à celles de Delisle et Woodsworth, et de Berman, c’est-à-dire que nous tenons compte de l’importance du contexte sociopolitique d’une traduction. Nous abordons brièvement la politique linguistique des Tudors et les raisons de sa mise en œuvre. Nous examinons plus spécifiquement les conséquences du choix d’Élisabeth Ire de prioriser l’uniformité religieuse plutôt que l’uniformité linguistique. En permettant aux Gallois un espace vital pour l’emploi de leur langue, Élisabeth permit inopinément au gallois de continuer à jouer un rôle dans la vie quotidienne au Pays de Galles. Grâce en grande partie à la qualité de la traduction et au milieu duquel sont issus les traducteurs, la Bible galloise et son ubiquité furent essentiels pour assurer la pérennité de la langue, par le biais de la normalisation et de la codification. La Bible galloise permit aussi de redéfinir le système littéraire gallois. Nous nous appuyons sur la notion d’horizon d’attente de Jauss et sur la contribution de Toury à la théorie des polysystèmes pour évaluer l’impact à long terme de cette traduction sur le Pays de Galles. Saviour of the Language? v Crynodeb Er i gyfieithu chwarae rôl hollbwysig yng ngoroesiad y Gymraeg, nid yw Cymru wedi cael hanner digon o sylw ym maes astudiaethau cyfieithu. Bu cyhoeddi’r Beibl Cymraeg ym 1588 o ganlyniad i gambl wleidyddol gan Elizabeth I yn drobwynt yn hanes yr iaith. Ar adeg pan waherddid defnyddio’r Gymraeg mewn bywyd cyhoeddus, chwaraeodd y Beibl Cymraeg ran allweddol bwysig yn natblygiad yr iaith a’i diwylliant. Wrth asesu effeithiau diwylliannol, gwleidyddol a chrefyddol y Beibl Cymraeg, fe arddelwn ymagwedd debyg i rai Delisle a Woodsworth, a Berman, a chymerwn i ystyriaeth bwysigrwydd y cyd-destun gwleidyddol a chymdeithasol y bydd cyfieithiad yn digwydd ynddo. Cyfeiriwn yn fyr at bolisi iaith y Tuduriaid a’i resymeg. Fe astudiwn yn fwy penodol ganlyniadau penderfyniad Elizabeth I i roi blaenoriaeth i unffurfiaeth grefyddol rhagor unffurfiaeth ieithyddol. Wrth roi i siaradwyr Cymraeg fan cyfarfod lle y gallent ddefnyddio’u hiaith, effaith anfwriadol gweithred Elizabeth oedd y byddai’r iaith yn dal i chwarae ei rhan ym mywyd beunyddiol Cymru. I raddau helaeth oherwydd ceinder y cyfieithiad a chefndir y cyfieithwyr, bu’r Beibl Cymraeg, a’r ffaith ei fod ar gael ymhobman, yn hanfodol bwysig wrth sicrhau parhad yr iaith drwy ei normaleiddio a’i chodeiddio ac, ymhellach, bu’n allweddol wrth ailddiffinio’r gyfundrefn lenyddol Gymraeg. Gan dynnu ar nosiwn Jauss o orwel y disgwyl ac ar waith Toury ar ddamcaniaeth amlsystem, fe werthuswn effaith barhaus y cyfieithiad hwnnw ar Gymru. Llewellyn vi Acknowledgements First and foremost, I want to thank my thesis advisor, Professor Judith Woodsworth, for her patience, expertise, and sheer competence. I would also like to thank the other professors in the Département d’études françaises, in particular the following: Pier-Pascale Boulanger, for sparking my interest in the master’s program; Paul F. Bandia, whose encyclopaedic knowledge provided the direction for me to begin exploring my subject; Natalia Teplova, whose enthusiasm prompted me to investigate it further; Sherry Simon, for encouragement at every step; and Philippe Caignon, for his unwavering faith in me. Thank you to Prof. Shannon McSheffrey, of the History Department, for her comments. Further thanks are due to the Départment d’études françaises at Concordia University for awarding me a departmental scholarship, and to Figura for the Bourse de maîtrise. The Concordia University community provided considerable support throughout this endeavour: GradProSkills, through the Three-Minute Thesis Competition and the Thesis Boost retreat, as well as the Graduate Seminar in University Teaching; the Concordia University Library, for never batting an eye when I picked up dozens of interlibrary loans at a time; librarian Meredith Giffin, for ensuring I had covered all my bases, and then some; and my fellow students, for their camaraderie, and for the many stimulating intellectual and other discussions. I would like to thank several individuals and institutions beyond the university community: The New York Public Library, for kindly allowing me access to an original 1588 Morgan Bible; Rheinallt Llwyd of the Merioneth Historical and Record Society, for digging out a copy of a 1976 journal, and sending it to me across the Atlantic; and Gerwyn ‘Wil’ Edwards, custodian of William Morgan’s birthplace, the National Trust site Tŷ Mawr, who recognized right away that I was no idle tourist! Special thanks to Berwyn Prys Jones for the Welsh abstract. Finally, I must thank my family, in particular my parents, David and Olga, my cats, and my grandfather, for their tremendous support and enthusiasm. Saviour of the Language? vii Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 1. Methodology and Context ............................................................................................... 5 1.1. Theoretical Framework 1.2. Political, Religious, and Linguistic Context 2. The Translators and Their Methods ............................................................................... 30 2.1. William Salesbury 2.2. William Morgan 2.3. Challenges 2.4. Two Men, Two Methods 2.5. Later Editions 3. Impact of the Translation .............................................................................................. 65 3.1. Initial Reception 3.2. Codification and Standardization 3.3. Conversion and Dissent 3.4. Early Educational Efforts: A Country of One Book 3.5. Literature in Wales 3.6. Legacy Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 91 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 94 Llewellyn 1 Introduction It is difficult to exaggerate the erudition and the linguistic mastery which made this translation the most influential literary