Why Do You Need This New Edition of Fundamentals of Philosophy? Here are 8 great reasons! 1. NEW! Chapter on Moral Skepticism (Ch. 20) 2. NEW! Chapter on Morality and Metaphysics (Ch. 21) 3. Expanded coverage of traditional issues in metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics 4. The discussion of philosophy and pop culture for this edition has been condensed and now focuses on connections made to specific issues within the various chapters. 5. NEW! Selection on the immateriality of the soul from Plato’s “Phaedo” (Ch. 9) 6. New commentary explains the role played by Descartes’ proofs for God’s existence and the authenticity in his epistemology 7. NEW! Substantial selection from the Third Mediation (Ch. 15) 8. NEW! Selection from section II of Hume’s “Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding” (Ch. 16) For an in-depth chapter-by-chapter view, visit www.pearsonhighered.com. This page intentionally left blank Eighth Edition FUNDAMENTALS OF PHILOSOPHY David Stewart Ohio University H. Gene Blocker Ohio University James Petrik Ohio University Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Craig Campanella Sr. Managing Editor: Melissa Feimer Editor-in-Chief: Dickson Musslewhite Production Liaison: Joe Scordato Executive Editor: Ashley Dodge Full-Service Project Management: Saraswathi Developmental Editor: Maggie Barbieri Muralidhar/PreMediaGlobal Editorial Project Manager: Carly Czech Composition: PreMediaGlobal Assistant Editor: Courtney Elezovic Senior Operations Manager: Mary Fischer Editorial Assistant: Nicole Suddeth Operations Specialist: Diane Peirano VP/Director of Marketing: Brandy Dawson Cover Administrator: Jayne Conte Senior Marketing Manager: Laura Lee Manley Cover Designer: Axell Design Marketing Assistant: Paige Patunas Cover Photo: Offscreen/Shutterstock Digital Media Editor: Rachel Comerford Digital Media Project Managers: Diane Lombardo/ Barbara Taylor-Laino Credits appear on appropriate page within text, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page. Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stewart, David Fundamentals of philosophy / David Stewart, H. Gene Blocker, James Petrik.—Eighth edition, student edition. p. cm Previously published: Seventh edition. Boston : Prentice Hall, 2010. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-24299-3 ISBN-10: 0-205-24299-5 1. Philosophy--Textbooks. I. Blocker, H. Gene. II. Petrik, James M. III. Title. BD21.S77 2012 100—dc23 2011049295 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 [CRW] 13 12 11 10 09 Student Edition ISBN-10: 0-205-24299-5 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-24299-3 CONTENTS Preface ix Part 1 What Is Philosophy? 1 Chapter 1 The Activity of Philosophy 1 Chapter 2 Philosophy’s History 8 Chapter 3 Philosophy and the Examined Life 15 Socrates: In Defense of Philosophy 17 Part 2 Thinking About Thinking (Logic) 26 Chapter 4 The Life of Reason 26 Chapter 5 Argument Forms 33 Chapter 6 Induction and the Philosophy of Science 46 Chapter 7 Strategies for Philosophical Arguments 57 Part 3 What Is Real? (Metaphysics) 74 Chapter 8 Introduction to Metaphysics 74 Chapter 9 Dualism 85 Plato: The Immortality of the Soul 88 Plato: The Divided Line 92 Chapter 10 Materialism 101 Epicurus: First Principle of Materialism 108 Chapter 11 Idealism 118 George Berkeley: Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous 120 Chapter 12 The Mind–Body Problem and Personal Identity 132 Alfred C. Lent: Surviving in a Different Body 141 Chapter 13 Freedom and Determinism: The Metaphysics of Human Agency 153 Peter van Inwagen: The Moral Argument for Freedom 160 v vi Contents Part 4 How Do We Know? (Epistemology) 165 Chapter 14 Introduction to Epistemology 165 Chapter 15 René Descartes: The Quest for Certainty 171 René Descartes: Meditations 174 Chapter 16 David Hume: Trust Your Senses 187 David Hume: Of the Origin of Ideas 190 David Hume: Skeptical Doubts Concerning the Operations of the Understanding 197 Chapter 17 Immanuel Kant: A Compromise 201 Immanuel Kant: Two Sources of Knowledge 211 Chapter 18 Knowledge and Human Practices: The Pragmatist Tradition 218 William James: What Pragmatism Means 221 Nathaniel Goldberg: Where Does Knowledge Come From? Quine, Davidson, and Traditional Epistemology 225 Part 5 What Ought We to Do? (Ethics) 239 Chapter 19 Introduction to Ethical Reasoning 239 Chapter 20 Moral Skepticism 246 J. L. Mackie: The Argument from Relativity 254 Chapter 21 Morality and Metaphysics 261 Matthew Carey Jordan: God and Morality 265 Chapter 22 Eudaemonism: The Morality of Self-Realization 278 Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics 281 Chapter 23 Utilitarianism: Morality Depends on the Consequences 289 John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism 295 Chapter 24 Deontology: Morality Depends on the Motives 301 Immanuel Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Ethics 304 Part 6 Philosophy of Religion 316 Chapter 25 Introduction to Philosophy of Religion 316 Chapter 26 Religion and Life’s Meaning 322 Leo Tolstoy: A Confession 325 Contents vii Chapter 27 A Priori Arguments for God’s Existence 331 St. Anselm: Proslogion 334 Chapter 28 A Posteriori Arguments for God’s Existence: Aquinas’ Five Ways 348 St. Thomas Aquinas: The Five Ways 350 Chapter 29 The Problem of Evil 361 James Petrik: Inscrutable Evil and an Infinite God 366 Part 7 Philosophy of Art (Esthetics) 379 Chapter 30 Introduction to the Philosophy of Art 379 Chapter 31 The Value of Art 388 H. Gene Blocker: The Esthetic Attitude 389 Chapter 32 Art as Ideal 397 Kenneth Clark: The Naked and the Nude 398 Chapter 33 Esthetics and Ideology 408 Jennifer Jeffers: The Politics of Representation 409 Part 8 Social and Political Philosophy 422 Chapter 34 Introduction to Social and Political Philosophy 422 Chapter 35 The Liberal, Secular State 430 John Locke: A Letter Concerning Toleration 435 Chapter 36 The Individual and the State 442 John Stuart Mill: On Liberty 444 Chapter 37 Human Rights 451 H. Gene Blocker: Human Rights 452 Chapter 38 Individual Happiness and Social Responsibility 463 M. Andrew Holowchak: Happiness and Justice in “Liberal” Society: Autonomy as Political Integration 464 Part 9 Eastern Thought 475 Chapter 39 Philosophy East and West 475 Chapter 40 Confucian Theories of Human Nature 481 Mencius: The Book of Mencius 485 Xun Zi: The Nature of Man Is Evil 490 Dong Zhongshu: Human Nature Is Both Good and Evil 495 viii Contents Chapter 41 Hindu Debate on Monism 497 Chapter 42 Buddhist Theory of Emptiness 505 Nagarjuna: Seventy Verses on Emptiness 507 Nagarjuna: How Phenomena Are Empty of Inherent Existence 511 Glossary of Terms 519 Index 527 PREFACE From our years of experience in teaching introductory philosophy, we have concluded that such a course should do two things: (1) introduce students to the major themes and thinkers in the philosophic tradition and (2) show how the issues students encounter in the great thinkers sections apply to concerns they encounter in their life experiences. A begin- ning philosophy course can attempt to do too much and as a consequence, accomplish too little. However, we think that an introductory philosophy course should contribute to students’ general education by helping them develop a conceptual framework and vocabulary for discussing important intellectual and social issues. Philosophy has something to say when people become upset over a controversial art exhibit or groups complain about art works that critics say degrade a religious or eth- nic group. It also has something to say when people are misled by specious arguments and faulty reasoning. It can assist us in understanding that claims to absolute knowledge are not to be taken at face value, and it can guide us through the perplexing issues raised in public policy debates, such as the ongoing tugs of war about the protection of minority groups or life styles. Students probably first begin to think philosophically about matters of ethics and religion, though they may not be fully aware that they are doing philosophy when they encounter such problems in their own thinking. And with the increased awareness of other countries and cultures, students today need to have an understanding of non-Western thought systems. At the same time, we do not intend this book to be just about philosophy, that is, a second-hand recounting of philosophical positions. We believe that students need to encoun- ter the great thinkers directly. Therefore, we offer here the best features of the reader and the expository text. The readings themselves have been selected to represent a wide range of philosophical styles and temperaments—from Kant, Berkeley, Hume, and Descartes to Tolstoy, Mencius, Wittgenstein, and Kenneth Clark. The readings are no mere snippets but are solid chunks of material from relatively self-contained units, ranging from five to ten pages in length. This book is divided into forty-two chapters (arranged under nine topics), and within each part users may select some readings and omit others without loss of peda- gogical effectiveness. Since this book contains more material than can be covered in a single academic term, instructors may pick and choose those chapters that best suit their own philosophical dispositions.