BABESCH 90 (2015), 1-11. doi: 10.2143/BAB.90.0.3089910 On the location of Aziris, the earliest Greek settle- ment on the Libyan mainland Edwin de Vries Abstract Herodotus records that prior to the foundation of Cyrene, Greek settlers first claimed the island Plateia, and later settled at Aziris on the Libyan mainland. The exact locations of these sites are uncertain. In this paper the available archaeological, geological, and literary evidence is reappraised and used to contextualize Herodotus’ narrative. Through this contextualization the most likely location of Aziris becomes apparent, as well as the pivotal role of this site in the development of Greek settlement in Libya.* INTRODUCTION settlement is not successful. After struggling for two years the settlers once again turn to the Traditional scholarship has it that Greek settlers Pythia for guidance. By now Apollo is becoming from Thera founded the settlement of Cyrene in vexed and urges them to settle on the Libyan main- Libya in 631 BC. The settlement was to become land.4 The settlers then move into a territory on the most prominent in the region, so that the the mainland, called Aziris, a location that is entire region became known as the ‘Cyrenaian enclosed by verdant vales and has a river run- territory’, or Cyrenaica. Cyrene is sometimes con- ning alongside it. Here they dwell for six years, sidered to be the metropolis of many other Greek until in the seventh year a delegation of Libyans settlements in Cyrenaica. Principal among these comes and urges them to move to a better place. are Taucheira, Apollonia, Euhesperides, and Barce. The Libyans explain that they know of a place Together with Cyrene these cities are sometimes where there is a ‘hole in the sky’, which would known as the Pentapolis, which is an alternative therefore be particularly well suited for Greeks. name for the region in the late Roman period.1 With the Libyans as their guides, the settlers find The foundation of Cyrene is recorded by the Cyre, a spring sacred to Apollo, and found historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC. The Cyrene.5 narrative is largely mythological in nature and In Herodotus’ narrative the foundation of Cyrene seems, among other things, to retroactively is preceded by the foundation of settlements on the explain 5th century BC realities.2 For instance, the island Plateia and at Aziris. The two preceding leader of the Theran settlers is a certain Battos, settlements appear to fulfill an intermediary role. who is also the dynastic founder of the Battiad At Plateia the settlers fail to fulfill the command kings of Cyrene.3 The myth also explains how of Apollo to settle in Libya, while at Aziris they Greek settlers, who generally settled in coastal finally comply. It is worth noting that the drought areas, ended up settling some 10 km inland. at Thera, which was brought about by disobedi- The story begins with a visit of the king of ence to the will of Apollo, lasts into a seventh Thera, a certain Grinnos, to the oracle at Delphi, year, matching the number of years the settlers where the king is unexpectedly charged to found dwell in Aziris. It appears that Aziris serves as a a settlement in Libya. Grinnos decides to disregard place of atonement for the settlers before being the will of Apollo, explaining that he is too old allowed to reap the final reward: Cyrene.6 Despite and does not know where Libya is located. After- the important role of Plateia, and especially wards, the command is forgotten, and Thera suf- Aziris within Herodotus’ narrative, the two sites fers a severe drought. In the seventh year of the have received relatively little historical and drought the Therans turn to the oracle at Delphi archaeological interest. The location of either site for council. The Pythia explains that the Therans is uncertain.7 have an obligation to found a settlement in Libya. In this paper we will consider the available The Therans first find a guide on Crete, who evidence on the location of Aziris, and use this to shows the way to an island offshore from Libya, put Herodotus’ mythological narrative in a wider called Plateia. They settle on the island, but the context. The evidence will comprise geological and 1 998228_Babesch_90(2015).indd8228_Babesch_90(2015).indd 1 331/08/151/08/15 113:183:18 archaeological evidence, and ancient texts. Given that surround it, but also because it has a coast- that archaeological and geological investigations line that is generally difficult to approach from in the region are limited, the textual evidence will the sea. Since much of northeastern Libya is part outweigh the other evidence in both quantity and of the Barce plateau, most of its shores consist of quality. We will find that Herodotus’ narrative steep cliffs.10 contains much more information than is evident Natural harbors are rare in Cyrenaica, since at a first glance, but that much of this information these generally require coastal flatlands and a is presented within an allegorical framework. beach. Outside Cyrenaica, this difficulty is probably More importantly, this contextualization of Hero- compounded by the fact that places where potable dotus will underline the important role of Aziris water can be found become increasingly rare. Some in the process of Greek settlement in northeastern coastal flatlands do occur, and are formed from Libya, and our understanding of this process. We natural saltpans, or sabkhas. Generally these are will begin with an examination of the geological confined to narrow beachheads at the mouths of context. This will be followed by a discussion of wadis (natural drainage channels), though more modern archaeological investigations. Finally, we extensive flatlands can occur where multiple will examine the available textual evidence, start- wadis terminate and/or the coast does not suffer ing in the late Roman period and tracing our from maritime erosion. In addition, wadis are the steps back in time to Herodotus, where this paper most likely places to find potable water in the more started. arid regions. Wadis can function as conduits for groundwater, so that even if there is only very GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT little water, that water is likely to be closest to the surface in the beds of the wadis. This feature of Cyrenaica comprises a narrow sliver of fertile wadis sometimes makes them suitable for small- land, stretching from roughly Benghazi (ancient scale agriculture as well.11 Euhesperides) to Dernah (ancient Darnis). The Libyan coast includes only few islands. A Beyond Dernah the landscape becomes increas- set of two small islands, and a peninsula that ingly more arid, up to the Bay of Bombah, from may have been an island in antiquity, are located where the arid steppes and deserts of ancient in the Bay of Bombah. It is generally assumed Marmarica stretch out. The dramatic difference that one of these is likely to be ancient Plateia. There between Cyrenaica and the surrounding regions is, however, some confusion in modern literature can be explained geologically. Much of northeast- about the names of the islands. The name of the ern Libya is part of a raised limestone massif, peninsula is Bombah, but is sometimes referred to called the Barce plateau. The plateau is bisected as Bumbah. The larger of the islands is known as by numerous parallel vaults, and tectonic pres- Jazirat al-Ulbah, though it is often referred to as sure has raised the formations between these Bomba in modern literature. The final island, the vaults, creating a string of stepped mountains one located furthest offshore, is named Jazirat al- known as the Jebel al-Akhdar, which translates to Barda’ah, though it is alo referred to as Jazirat al- ‘the Green Mountains’. The mountains are aptly Marakab. Opposite the islands lie coastal flatlands named, since they are the key element in the where numerous wadis terminate and numerous mechanism that ensures the fertility of Cyrenaica: sabkhas have formed. Today the small town of at- water that evaporates over the Mediterranean is Tamimi is located on these flatlands.12 forced to precipitate on its northern faces, water- ing Cyrenaica. Consequently, this mechanism MODERN SCOLARSHIP deprives the surrounding territories of much water. The Jebel al-Akhdar also form the physical From a landscape perspective, the Bay of Bombah boundary between Cyrenaica and the more arid seems a textbook example of a region preferred surrounding territories (fig. 1).8 by Greek settlers. Greek settlers often sought out The relative isolation of Cyrenaica probably places that offered some degree of protection, allowed unique species of flora and fauna to such as an island or a headland, preferably with develop there. At least one unique plant from the a reliable source of potable water, and natural region is known to have existed in antiquity: sil- harbor(s) close at hand. In other words, Greek phium. The plant is believed to have been a sub- settlement overseas tends to have a strong mari- species of the genus ferula, to which medicinal time focus. This is perhaps best exemplified by qualities were attributed in antiquity.9 Cyrenaica Syracuse, where the original settlement was lim- is not only isolated because of the arid regions ited to the island Ortygia with its natural spring 2 998228_Babesch_90(2015).indd8228_Babesch_90(2015).indd 2 331/08/151/08/15 113:183:18 Fig. 1. Map image of Northeastern Libya and Crete with locations mentioned in the text (map by author). Arethousa.13 As settlements grew, they generally argument relies on his personal observations, became increasingly dependent upon the agricul- accompanied by sporadic information gathered tural potential of their hinterland, into which from local inhabitants, and a familiarity with ancient they tended to expand.