EXPLAINING STATE DEVELOPMENT: INDONESIA FROM ITS PRE-INDEPENDENCE ORIGINS TO CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science at the University of Canterbury By Dodik Ariyanto S.IP. (B.A.) Universitas Gadjah Mada, 1998 D.E.A. (Master) l‟Université Montesquieu, Bordeaux IV, 2004 Adviser: Professor Mark Francis, Ph.D. Associate Professor Alexander Tan, Ph.D. Department of Political Science 2010 LIST OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE LIST OF CONTENTS ii LIST OF APPENDICES v ABBREVIATIONS vi DEDICATION x ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xi ABSTRACT xii INTRODUCTION 1 1 TOWARD A FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS 9 1.1. A debate on the idea of state: classic and modern 9 1.2. Developing the ‗modern‘ State: Complexity and 17 capability 1.3. Mechanically developing democratic and dictatorial 28 versions of the State: Indonesia‘s four versions, 1950-2010 1.4. The four versions‘ capabilities: Dealing with 37 Legitimacy, the Military and Political Disorder 2 PRE-INDEPENDENCE ORIGINS OF THE FIRST 39 VERSION OF THE STATE 2.1. Disunited nationalism versus the ―Unity in diversity‖ 40 2.2. Polarization of perspectives among elites 47 2.3. Two competing models of constitution: the shari‘a 51 versus secularism 2.4. Mixed constitution: The middle way 60 ii 3 SEEKING LEGAL LEGITIMACY 68 3.1. Version I : Post-colonial attempt of democratic 68 legal legitimacy 3.2. Version II : Sukarno‘s charismatic legitimacy 74 3.3. Version III : Suharto‘s claim to performance 80 legitimacy 3.4. Version IV : Democratic legal legitimacy 93 3.5. Conclusion 100 4 THE MILITARY AND THE STATE 104 4.1. Perlmutter‘s Revolutionary, Praetorian and 107 Professional Types 4.2. Version I : Legacy of the Revolutionary Type 112 4.3. Version II : Sukarno‘s mixed Type 129 4.4. Version III : Suharto‘s version of the Praetorian 133 Type 4.5. Version IV : Towards Professional Military 140 4.6. Conclusion 145 5 DEALING WITH POLITICAL DISORDERS: DEGREE OF 148 DIFFICULTY 5.1. Version I : Early-independence episode 149 5.2. Version II : 1950-1965 and 1965-1966 episodes 150 5.3. Version III : 1997-1998 episode 152 5.4. Version IV : post-1998 trend of communal violence 153 and separatism iii 6 DEALING WITH POLITICAL DISORDERS: DEGREE OF 166 SUCCESS 6.1. Version I: Post-colonial dealing with disorder 166 6.2. Version II: Sukarno‘s revolutionary approach 172 6.3. Version III: Maintaining order through power 177 consolidation 6.4. Version IV: Democratic consolidation 195 6.5. Conclusion 197 7 PRE-DEMOCRATIC ORIGINS OF THE PRESENT 199 VERSION OF THE STATE 7.1. Economic crisis 201 7.2. Political crisis 209 7.3. Weaking support from the military 215 7.4. Rallying opponents amongst elites 218 CONCLUSION 231 REFERENCES 241 APPENDICES 274 iv LIST OF APPENDICES PAGES Appendix 1 Anderson‘s View of the Indonesian State 274 Appendix 2 French state mechanical development 279 Appendix 3 Assesment on Indonesian state capability 283 Appendix 4 Economic Indicators (1955-1971) 285 Appendix 5 Garnadi Document 287 Appendix 6 Suharto‘s Resignation Speech 291 Appendix 7 Main Operational Commandos of the Indonesian Armed 293 Forces v ABBREVIATIONS ABRI The Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia AMPERA The Carrier of People‘s Suffering APBN State Annual Budget Aspri Personal Assistant Babinsa Village Development Non-Commissioned Officers BAIS The Armed Forces Strategic Intelligence Agency BKR People‘s Security Organization BP Vanguard Corps BPKKP Organization for Aid to Families of War Victims BPUPKI Investigating Body for the Preparation of Indonesian Independence CNRS French National Center for Scientific Research DI The House of Islam DOM The Military Operation Region DPRGR People‘s Representative Assembly FBSI The Federation of Indonesian Labour FKM The Front of Sovereign Moluccas Gakari Bureaucrats Grouping and Civil Servants GAM Aceh Liberation Movement GAPI Federation of Indonesian Political Parties GBHN State‘s Guidelines GDP Gross Domestic Product Gerindo The Indonesian People‘s Movement Gestapu The Communist operation of the 30th of September (1965) Golkar Functionalist Group HKTI Indonesian Farmers Union vi HNSI Indonesian Fishermen Union ICMI Indonesian Intellectual Muslim Association IMF International Monetary Fund JIB Muslim Youth Union JSE Jakarta Stock Exchange KASAD Army Strategic Division Kasgab Joint Staffs Kaster Commander of Territorial Staff of the Army KKN Corruption, Complicity, and Nepotism KNI Indonesian National Committee KNIL Dutch Army at the East Indische KNIP Central Indonesian National Committee KNPI National Youth Committee Kodam Regional Military Command Kodim District Military Command Kopassus Special Forces Kopkamtib Command for the Operation to Maintain Order and Security Koramil Sub-District Military Command Korem Sub-Regional Military Command KORPRI Indonesian Civil Servants Association Kosgoro United Multi-Purpose Organisation KOWANI Indonesian Women Congress Litsus Special Investigation LoI Letter of Intent Masyumi Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslim MIAI Great Islamic Council of Indonesia MPR National Assembly/National Consultative Assembly vii MPR National Assembly MPRS Provisional National Assembly MUI Indonesian Ulema Council Murba People Consultative Party NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NEFO New Emerging Forces NU Traditional/Conservative Muslim Party OLDEFO Old Emerging Forces P3TT Taskforce on Referendum at the East Timor Pangab Commander-in-Chief Pangdam Commanders of Regional Military Commands Parindra Great Indonesian Party Parkindo Indonesian Christian Party Partindo Indonesian Party PDI Indonesian Democratic Party PDIP Indonesian Democratic Struggle Party Permi Indonesian Muslim Union Party PETA The Defenders of the Motherland PII Indonesian Islamic Party PKB National Awakening Party PKI Communist Party PNI Indonesian Nationalist Party PNI Baru Indonesian Nationalist Education PPKI The Committee for Preparation of the Indonesian Independence PPP Development Union Party PPPKI Union of National Political Association PSI Islamic Association Party viii PSIHT East Indies Islamic Association Party PSII Indonesian Islamic Association Party Putera Centre for People‘s Power PWI Indonesian Journalist Union RIS Federal State of Republic of Indonesia SDI Islamic Trade Association Sekber Joint Secretariat Seskoad The Army Staff and Command School SI Islamic Association SIL Summer Institute of Linguistic SOKSI Indonesian Workers Union TII Indonesian Islamic Forces TJADEK Four Obligation Towards One Purpose TKR The Army of People‘s Security TNI Indonesian National Army TNI-AD The Army TRI The Army of the Republic of Indonesia UNAMET United Nations Mission on the East Timor UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ZILS The Industrial Zone of Lhokseumawe ix DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my mother, my wife, and my three boys Without their patience, understanding, and most of all love, the completion of this work would not have been possible And also to my beloved country, Indonesia x ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is still hard to believe that finally I‘m writing on this page and is therefore a great pleasure to thank those who have made this thesis possible. For their assistance, advice, encouragement, guidance I owe my sincerest gratitude to: Professor Mark Francis, Dr. Alexander Tan, Dr. Paul Brooker, Jill Dolby, James To, Brad Taylor, and Dave Clements. I would also like to thank for their financial assistance: New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, NZAID and in particular Dr. Sarah Beaven. For their vision and support, I would like to convey my sincere thanks to: The State Secretariat of the Republic of Indonesia, The Indonesian Embassy at Wellington, and, Colleagues and peers that I cannot mention one by one. xi ABSTRACT Explaining State Development: Indonesia from Pre-Independence Origins to Contemporary Democracy. This thesis uses the Indonesian case to present a new paradigm for explaining the state development of new or relatively new (post-World War II) states. The first chapter describes this paradigm of organic and mechanical types of state development, argues that the development of the Indonesian state from the 1950s to 1990s is a good example of the mechanical type of development and shows how this can be confirmed by assessing and comparing the capabilities of the four different versions of a modern state developed by Indonesia since independence. The next chapter examines Indonesia‘s pre-independence debates about the form of state to be adopted, which led to Indonesia accepting a Western model of the state that has since undergone a development process involving four different versions of a ‗modern‘ state. These four versions of the state are defined according to their type of regime and policymaking institutions: I) parliamentary democracy, II) Sukarno‘s civilian presidential monarchy, III) Suharto‘s military presidential monarchy and IV) presidential democracy. Chapters Three to Six assess and compare these four versions‘ capability in three key areas: 1) achieving legal legitimacy, 2) control of the military and 3) dealing with political disorder – a crucial area of state capability that requires two chapters. Then Chapter Seven examines and explains the pre- democratic origins of the present version of the Indonesian state, the presidential democracy of Version IV. The Conclusion collates the findings of Chapters Three to Six on capabilities and summarises the arguments of Chapters Two and Seven regarding the 1940s acceptance of the Western