EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHES TO ADDICTION The role of brain emotional systems in addictions: a neuro-evolutionary perspective and new ‘self-report’ animal model Jaak Panksepp1, Brian Knutson2 & Jeff Burgdorf1 Department of Psychology, J.P. Scott Center for Neuroscience, Mind and Behavior, Bowling Green State University, OH, USA1 and Section of Brain Imaging and Electrophysiology, Laboratory of Clinical Studies, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA2 Correspondence to: ABSTRACT Dr Jaak Panksepp Department of Psychology The evolutionary significance of neurochemical events in the brain has Bowling Green State University received minimal attention in the field of addiction research. Likewise, the Bowling Green, OH, 43403 USA general failure of neuroscientists to postulate how basic brain circuits might Tel: + 1 419 372 2819 mediate emotional urges has retarded the development of scientific perspectives Fax: + 1 419 372 6013 that could inform new inquiries into the underlying dynamics and treatment E-mail: [email protected] of addictions. In this paper, we revisit the argument that prototypically abused Submitted 1 November 2000; substances activate or alter specific emotional brain systems that were evolu- initial review completed 22 February 2001; tionarily designed to signal potential increments or decrements in fitness. We final version accepted 6 August 2001 then discuss two distinct emotional systems (reward seeking and separation dis- tress) which may track different types of potential changes in fitness. Based on this evolutionarily inspired approach, we illustrate how a mammalian model of emotion (i.e. rodent ultrasonic vocalizations) may enable scientists to predict drug-related phenomena such as abuse potential, anatomical location of medi- ating neural substrates, and the psychological impact of withdrawal. We con- clude by discussing some therapeutic and social implications of examining drug addiction processes with multiple emotional brain systems in mind. KEYWORDS Addiction, appetitive motivation, emotion, evolution, seeking, social behavior, ultrasonic vocalizations. INTRODUCTION served because they serve some critical purpose other than promoting the vigorous intake of highly purified In comparison to cultural, environmental, biological chemical compounds recently developed by humans. and pathological accounts, evolutionary explanations for An evolutionary perspective raises novel questions addiction have received relatively scant elaboration about these brain systems. For instance, what functions (Nesse & Berridge 1997). The hypothesis that addictive do these systems normally subserve in mammals and, in compounds must act on evolutionarily conserved brain the case of addiction, how can drug ingestion divert substrates is supported by the simple fact that other or even commandeer the normal functioning of these mammals readily exhibit compulsive self-administration systems? Answers to these questions may bring us closer of the same drugs as humans (Wise 1998). The subcor- to potential remedies for some of the deleterious effects of tical neural systems that modulate these compulsions drug addiction. In this paper we will argue that, in part, appear to be anatomically, chemically and perhaps the neural substrates that are deranged by addiction nor- emotionally/motivationally conserved across mam- mally track anticipated increases or decreases in fitness, malian species (Butler & Hodos 1996; Panksepp & or by animals’ automatic affective responses that help Panksepp 2000). Obviously, these systems were pre- pass on their genes to future generations. © 2002 Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs Addiction, 97, 459–469 460 Jaak Panksepp et al. At one level, of course, all evolved brain systems 2. As a fitness-enhancing heuristic, animals promote fitness either directly or indirectly. For instance, strive to maximize pleasant feelings and minimize reflexes (e.g. withdrawal) allow an animal to rapidly and unpleasant feelings unthinkingly avoid stimuli that threaten physical harm Combining this statement with the above statement and (e.g. sudden loud sounds that activate startle). However, applying the transitive property, this translates into emotional feelings may establish a common fitness metric ‘animals will attempt to increase exposure to stimuli that across different stimuli within a given brain, and so are potentially maximize fitness and decrease exposure to more flexible. While reflexes are rigid and limited in con- stimuli that potentially minimize fitness’. However, the necting only one type of sensory stimulation with one mediating role of emotional feelings cannot be omitted type of behavioral output, emotional systems confer flex- from this equation. Emotional feelings act as the common ibility in both the interpretation of inputs and the gener- hedonic metric along which everything, from apples to ation of outputs. In addition, reflexes are by definition oranges to cocaine, can be compared. In the vernacu- nonreflective and happen unconditionally in response lar, this means that animals will pursue activities that to stimuli, while emotional systems are proactive (i.e. promote pleasurable feelings and desist from activities experience expectant) and can anticipate fitness-relevant that instigate aversive feelings and distress. The implica- stimuli. Indeed, current advances in neuroscience have tion is that, if these mediating affective brain mecha- revealed a variety of genetically ingrained emotional nisms can be triggered powerfully by stimuli that have systems in subcortical regions of the brain that guide and nothing to do with fitness, animals may begin to behave channel the arousal and activities of higher brain as if those stimuli are more important than naturally systems (Panksepp 1998a). fitness-enhancing activities such as feeding, drinking, copulating and sleeping. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the concrete example of animals who will forgo SOME EVOLUTIONARY THESES food and water to repeatedly press a bar for brain stimu- CONCERNING ADDICTIVE URGES lation of medial forebrain areas until the point of exhaus- tion and, finally, death (Olds 1977). Before delving into the intricacies of how drugs of abuse may affect such systems, we first lay out a conceptual 3. If pharmacological challenges can act upon and path from fitness concerns to emotional changes to alter emotional systems, other hedonic processes addictive behaviors, taking into consideration the inter- dependent on these systems (including but not play between different levels of analysis, from proximal to limited to social relations) may suffer distal. To set the stage, let us first begin with a number of theses, some of which may seem surprising to those who Whereas ‘natural’ opportunities and threats stimulate do not approach the study of addiction from a neuro- emotional systems within certain physiological parame- evolutionary theoretical viewpoint. ters, the efficacy of drugs to stimulate these systems is limited only by the ingenuity of biochemists who design such substances (Shulgin & Shulgin 1991). Thus, many 1. Emotional feelings signal potential increases or drugs of abuse have the potential to stimulate emotional decreases in fitness brain systems in a super-physiological manner. When Although animals are obviously not consciously com- emotional systems are challenged repeatedly and exces- puting their fitness, they are aware of their feelings sively in particular environments various obsessions and at some level and respond accordingly, as evidenced compulsions can emerge which begin to govern lives. In by their behavior. For instance, life-enhancing stimuli some cases, intensified urges emerge from neuroadaptive evoke positive feelings which promote and sustain alterations that the presence of the drug wreaks on emo- approach behaviors, while life-threatening stimuli evoke tional brain systems (Berridge & Robinson 1998; White negative feelings which encourage avoidance behaviors & Kalivas 1998) and in others, through aversive oppo- (Young 1959). Presumably, there are sets of brain nent-process counter-regulatory processes initiated by processes that allow animals to distinguish various the absence of the drug (Kreek & Koob 1998). Either type opportunities and threats (i.e. first-order emotional of change can probably sustain motivation for drug ‘fitness incrementer’ and ‘fitness decrementer’ mecha- ingestion since affective homeostasis now depends on the nisms) from events that have no bearing on a given indi- presence of exogenous neuroactive substances in the vidual’s fitness. As harbingers of potential changes in system. When individuals reach such neuropsychologi- fitness, these emotional brain mechanisms might func- cal impasses, they have become ‘addicted’, a process that tion to prioritize sensory inputs and mobilize motor has the classic characteristics of a regulatory disorder or outputs accordingly. a brain ‘disease’ (Leshner 1997). © 2002 Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs Addiction, 97, 459–469 Role of brain emotional systems in addictions 461 4. Because mammals depend on kin for survival, tions of rats may help investigators to map the abuse social stimuli serve as especially powerful potential of various substances. This strategy may also mammalian emotion-elicitors help us clarify how drugs functionally modify the very systems they act upon, perhaps to facilitate the ‘switch The inability of young mammals to survive and