https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ Theses Digitisation: https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/research/enlighten/theses/digitisation/ This is a digitised version of the original print thesis. Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten: Theses https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] VOLUME 1 THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY OF SHETLAND BROCHS ✓ BY NOEL FOJUT Thesis presented in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts, University of Glasgow. October, 1979. ProQuest Number: 10984309 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10984309 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 r c c t its, mci it j ' o ? . le i : 3 Vord < ..: ly -wai i ■: : ■ in looks c m on the broch ruins at Burra f 5 - th , in northern Unst. VOLUME 1 Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements 1 Summary of Thesis i Preface : Origins of this study 1 Section I : Archaeological Discussions Definitions 5 Chapter I The Archaeology of Brochs, and Shetland ° Chapter I I A Brief Survey of Broch Archaeology to Date 1 0 Phases ^ 0 Broch Studies to 1945 ^ 1945 to 1975 19 Broch Studies in 1980 ^9 Postscript 51 Chapter III — Critical Review of Some Current Theories regarding the Cultural Affinities and Structural Evolution of Brochs 3 2 Jarlshof (Hamilton, 1956) 34 Clickhimin (Hamilton, 1968) 37 Dun Mor Vaul (MacKie, 1974) 51 Architectural Analysis 60 The Theories Compared 63 The Northern Origin 63 Western Origins 6 6 Discussion : Structural Sequences 69 Cultural Affinities 70 Synthesis : Via Media ? 74 Chapter I V Major Unresolved Research Themes 78 Themes 7 9 Possibilities 80 1) Nature and Function of Brochs 80 2) The Need for Brochs 85 3) The Broch Builders 91 4) The Distribution of Brochs 92 5) Economic Activities 94 6) Date of Construction 96 Page Chapter IV (continued) Status of ’'Subsidiary" Structures 99 Summary 103 Chapter V -- Shetland Brochs : Earlier Work ''t 0*5 Chapter VI — The Material Culture Associated with Shetland Brochs 125 Pottery 126 Non-Ceramic Material 1 34 Glass 134- Metal 134 Worked Bone 136 Wood 137 Worked Stone ^39 Evidence for Economic Activities ^ 4-6 Direct Evidence ^ 4-6 Indirect Evidence ^ 4-9 Chapter VII - The Structure, Outbuildings and Defensive Works of Shetland Brochs -j 51 Note : Preservation of Features i 5 An Analytical Discussion of Available Data 154 Broch Structure 156 Structural Correlations 170 Structure : Conclusions 171 "Subsidiary" Structures 173 Internal Structures 173 External Structures 177 Subsidiary Structures : Conclusions 180 External Defensive Works 182 Discussion 1 91 Allied Structures 193 Chapter VIII The Significance of Shetland 1 95 Progress 199 Acknowledgements With so many people to thank, it is difficult to know how to start and inevitably a line must be drawn. This still leaves many people, such as the landowners and natives of Shetland, without specific tribute. But of those who helped directly (if at times inadvertently) in the furtherance of this research, I must record my gratitude to Professor Leslie Alcock, Archaeology Department, and Dr. Euan MacKie, Hunterian Museum, of the University of Glasgow, my research supervisors, the former of whom made available his great knowledge of the procedures of archaeology, and the latter his personal store of information. Both stimulated many of the discussions which follow, although at times these differ strangely from the versions they will recall. The other members of staff, both academic and technical, gave unstinting help. The other occupants of the post-graduate students' room over three years bore with forebearance the geographical cuckoo y in their nest, and provided much coffee and conversation. Outside Glasgow, Mr. Roger Mercer and Dr. Trevor Watkins of Edinburgh's Archaeology Department made many useful comments, as did Mr. Peter Hill. The Geography Department of Aberdeen University supplied^mainly through Mr. Ian Ralston, my introduction to Scottish Archaeology, Shetland and the geographical techniques so cruelly used within this thesis. Dr. Fairhurst, formerly of the Archaeology- Department, Glasgow University, Mr. John Hedges of North of Scotland Archaeological Services and Mrs. Lorna Main of Central Regional Council have allowed me to use unpublished material from excavations, as has Dr. MacKie. Dr. Raymond Lamb, the Orkney Heritage Society . Field Archaeologist, allowed me to use his Ph.D. thesis on the promontory fortifications of the north, and discussed its contents with me, as did Dr. MacKie the contents of his own Ph.D. thesis on brochs. The latter formed the largest single source of information used. On the theoretical aspects, Dr. David Heisler of University of Missouri (now at University/ University of Southern Mississippi) allowed me to quote and disagree with, his Ph.D. thesis on Man-Land Relationships in Iron Age Caithness, and discussed statistical approaches in general, as did Mr. Peter Winham of Southampton University (now excavating in Winchester). Two undergraduate dissertations were particularly useful. Miss Jane Blair's discussion of Keiss South (Edinburgh) and Miss Paula Love's gazetteer and discussion of broch subsidiary structures in Orkney, Caithness and Sutherland (Glasgow). The latter discusses many of the arguments considered here, and helped to prevent many of them going astray. In Shetland, the staff of the Lerwick Museum and Library, particularly the past and present Curators, Mr. Tom Henderson and Mr. Andrew Williamson gave me advice, encouragement, information, shelter and assistance. Miss Ailsa Robertson of the Glasgow Department assisted with transport and1 surveying during the 1978 field work. To all of these must go thanks for help, academic and practical, without which this thesis could not have been begun, but there are more personal thanks to render; to Miss Paula Love who encouraged me throughout the tedium of preparing the final draft, and allowed me to talk brochs ad nauseam, and lastly to my family, who cheerfully supported and housed a windswept field worker upon my periodic collapses. Without these, this thesis would never have been completed. This research was undertaken under a grant from the Scottish Education Department's Major Scottish Studentship scheme, and was materially assisted by a grant from the University of Glasgow's Graduate Awards Scheme. All of the opinions expressed here, regardless of the above acknowledgements, are those of the author alone, who takes full responsibility for any errors and misrepresentations. The Archaeology and Geography of Shetland Brochs : Summary This thesis represents the results of extensive field survey in Shetland, supported by bibliographical research and by the inspection of private and public collections of arte factual material. The aims of research were twofold : to establish the place of Shetland in the development and spread of brochs in Scotland, and to investigate the palaeogeography of the period, with a view to extending the knowledge of Iron Age Shetland available from more traditional, excavation-based, studies. These two objectives determined the structure of the presentation of results. Section 1 deals with the structural and artefactual evidence. It commences by setting the Scottish scene, and proceeds to detail the Shetland portion of this. A review of published work concerning brochs is followed by a critical review of certain aspects of current theory. This discusses the three major published excavations (Jarlshof, Clickhimin and Dun Mor Vaul) in detail, together with theories of architectural evolution. Certain reinterpretations are proposed, and a scheme of origin and development advanced which attempts to reconcile the well-founded portions of both of the main schools of thought (the western and northern origin theories). It is suggested that too little attention has been paid to possible connections with the archaeology of Eastern Scotland, and too much to the West. This section continues with a discussion of major outstanding research themes connected with brochs. It is suggested that while definitive answers are generally not to be found, it is usually possible to outline the broad limits of possible solutions to many of the questions asked about brochs. These themes are not carried into detail, as adequate information does not exist to give meaning to such an analysis. Once this essential, but general, material has been concluded, the specifically Shetland content commences with a thorough review of published and unpublished research into brochs and allied sites in the Islands. This leads on to a detailed analysis of the material culture of the period, and the elements of this are compared, both in type and in style, to the Scottish synopsis presented by MacKie (1973). It is demonstrated that certain preconceptions, particularly concerning the ceramic sequence, are not justified by fact. This has resulted in the incorrect dating (in relative terms) of Shetland’s brochs. Material evidence regarding the economic activities of the broch-period population is introduced, and its limitations discussed.