6.11 Tectonic Models for the Evolution of Sedimentary Basins S. Cloetingh, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands P. A. Ziegler, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 6.11.1 Introduction 486 6.11.2 Tectonics of Extensional and Compressional Basins: Concepts and Global-Scale Observations 490 6.11.2.1 Extensional Basin Systems 490 6.11.2.1.1 Modes of rifting and extension 491 6.11.2.1.2 Thermal thinning and stretching of the lithosphere: concepts and models 493 6.11.2.1.3 Syn-rift subsidence and duration of rifting stage 496 6.11.2.1.4 Postrift subsidence 498 6.11.2.1.5 Finite strength of the lithosphere in extensional basin formation 504 6.11.2.1.6 Rift-shoulder development and architecture of basin fill 505 6.11.2.1.7 Transformation of an orogen into a cratonic platform: the area of the European Cenozoic Rift System 508 6.11.2.2 Compressional Basins Systems 519 6.11.2.2.1 Development of foreland basins 519 6.11.2.2.2 Compressional basins: lateral variations in flexural behaviour and implications for palaeotopography 520 6.11.2.2.3 Lithospheric folding: an important mode of intraplate basin formation 523 6.11.3 Rheological Stratification of the Lithosphere and Basin Evolution 525 6.11.3.1 Lithosphere Strength and Deformation Mode 525 6.11.3.2 Mechanical Controls on Basin Evolution: Europe’s Continental Lithosphere 529 6.11.4 Northwestern European Margin: Natural Laboratory for Continental Breakup and Rift Basins 535 6.11.4.1 Extensional Basin Migration: Observations and Thermomechanical Models 535 6.11.4.2 Fast Rifting and Continental Breakup 540 6.11.4.3 Thermomechanical Evolution and Tectonic Subsidence During Slow Extension 542 6.11.4.4 Breakup Processes: Timing, Mantle Plumes, and the Role of Melts 544 6.11.4.5 Postrift Inversion, Borderland Uplift, and Denudation 544 6.11.5 Black Sea Basin: Compressional Reactivation of an Extensional Basin 546 6.11.5.1 Rheology and Sedimentary Basin Formation 548 6.11.5.2 Role of Intraplate Stresses 550 6.11.5.3 Strength Evolution and Neotectonic Reactivation at the Basin Margins during the Postrift Phase 552 6.11.6 Modes of Basin (De)formation, Lithospheric Strength, and Vertical Motions in the Pannonian–Carpathian Basin System 555 6.11.6.1 Lithospheric Strength in the Pannonian–Carpathian System 559 6.11.6.2 Neogene Development and Evolution of the Pannonian Basin 561 6.11.6.2.1 Dynamic models of basin formation 561 6.11.6.2.2 Stretching models and subsidence analysis 563 6.11.6.3 Neogene Evolution of the Carpathians System 566 6.11.6.3.1 Role of the 3-D distributions of load and lithospheric strength in the Carpathian foredeep 567 6.11.6.4 Deformation of the Pannonian–Carpathian System 575 485 486 Tectonic Models for the Evolution of Sedimentary Basins 6.11.7 The Iberia Microcontinent: Compressional Basins within the Africa–Europe Collision Zone 579 6.11.7.1 Constraints on Vertical Motions 581 6.11.7.2 Present-Day Stress Regime and Topography 585 6.11.7.3 Lithospheric Folding and Drainage Pattern 586 6.11.7.4 Interplay between Tectonics, Climate, and Fluvial Transport during the Cenozoic Evolution of the Ebro Basin (NE Iberia) 588 6.11.7.4.1 Ebro Basin evolution: a modeling approach 590 6.11.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 593 References 596 6.11.1 Introduction basin migration processes using the NW European margin as a natural laboratory. We specifically In this chapter we review the formation and evolu- address relationships between rift duration and tion of sedimentary basins in their lithospheric extension velocities, thermal evolution, and the role context. To this purpose, we follow a natural labora- of mantle plumes and melts. This is followed by a tory approach, selecting some well-documented brief discussion of compressional reactivation and its basins of Europe. We begin with a brief outline of consequences for postrift inversion, borderland the evolution of tectonic modeling of sedimentary uplift, and denudation. basin systems since its inception in the late 1970s. In Section 6.11.5, we further develop the treat- We subsequently review key features of the tectonics ment of polyphase deformation of extensional basins of rifted and compressional basins in Section 6.11.2. taking the Black Sea Basin as a natural laboratory. We These include the classification of extensional basins concentrate on rheological controls on basin forma- into Atlantic type, back-arc, syn- and postorogenic tion affecting the large-scale basin stratigraphy and rifts. This is followed by a discussion of thermal rift shoulder dynamics. We also discuss the role of thinning of the lithosphere, doming and flood basalts, intraplate stresses and lithospheric strength evolution aspects of particular importance to volcanic rifted during the postrift phase and consequences for neo- margins. We discuss the record of vertical motions tectonic reactivation of the Black Sea basin system. during and after rifting in the context of stretching In Section 6.11.6, we give an overview on the models developed to quantify rifted basin formation. interplay of extension and compression in the As discussed in Section 6.11.2.1.5., the finite strength Pannonian–Carpathian basin system of Central of the lithosphere has an important effect on the Eastern Europe. We begin with a review of temporal formation of extensional basins. This applies both to and lateral variations in lithospheric strength in the the geometry of the basin shape as well as to the region and its effects on late-stage basin deformation. record of vertical motions during and after rifting. This is followed by summary of models proposed We also address the tectonic control on postrift evo- for the development of the Pannonian–Carpathian lution of extensional basins. The concept of strength system. We also present results of three-dimensional of the lithosphere has also important consequences (3-D) modeling approaches investigating the role for compressional basins. The latter include foreland of 3-D distributions of load and lithospheric strength basins as well as basins formed by lithospheric in orogenic arcs. In doing so, we focus on implications folding. of these models for a better understanding of poly- In Section 6.11.3, we focus on thermomechanical phase subsidence in the Carpathian foredeep. aspects of sedimentary basin formation in the context For our discussion of lithospheric folding as a of large-scale models for the underlying lithosphere. mode of basins formation, and for the interplay We highlight the connection between the bulk rheo- between lithosphere and surface processes in a com- logical properties of Europe’s lithosphere and the pressional setting, we have selected the Iberian evolution of some of Europe’s main sedimentary microcontinent, located within the Africa–Europe basins. collision zone. In the first part of Section 6.11.7,we In Section 6.11.4, we investigate thermomechani- review constraints on vertical motions, present-day cal controls on continental breakup and associated stress regime and interaction between surface Tectonic Models for the Evolution of Sedimentary Basins 487 transport and vertical motions for Iberia at large. accommodation space (Burton et al.,1987; Lawrence This is followed by a more detailed treatment of et al.,1990). For the evolution of extensional basins tectonic controls on drainage systems using the this approach made a clear distinction between their Ebro basin system of NE Iberia as a natural syn-rift and postrift stage, relating exponentially laboratory. decreasing postrift tectonic subsidence rates to a com- The closing section, Section 6.11.8, draws general bination of thermal equilibration of the lithosphere– conclusions and addresses future perspectives. asthenosphere system and lithospheric flexure (Watts The origin of sedimentary basins is a key element et al., 1982). in the geological evolution of the continental litho- A similar set of assumptions were made to sphere. During the last decades, substantial progress describe the syn-rift phase. In the simplest version was made in the understanding of thermomechanical of the stretching model (McKenzie, 1978), litho- processes controlling the evolution of sedimentary spheric thinning was described as resulting from basins and the isostatic response of the lithosphere more or less instantaneous extension. In these models to surface loads such as sedimentary basins. Much of a component of lithosphere mechanics was obviously this progress stems from improved insights into the lacking. On a smaller scale, tilted fault block models mechanical properties of the lithosphere, from the were introduced for modeling of the basin fill at the development of new modeling techniques, and from scale of half-graben models. Such models essentially the evaluation of new, high-quality datasets from decouple the response of the brittle upper crust from previously inaccessible areas of the globe. The focus deeper lithospheric levels during rifting phases (see, of this chapter is on tectonic models processes con- e.g., Kusznir et al., 1991). trolling the evolution of sedimentary basins. A noteworthy feature of most modeling approaches After the realization that subsidence patterns of was their emphasis on the basin subsidence record and Atlantic-type margins, corrected for effects of sediment their very limited capability to handle differential loading and palaeo-bathymetry, displayed the typical subsidence and uplift patterns in a process-oriented, time-dependent decay characteristic of ocean-floor internally consistent manner (see, e.g., Kusznir and cooling (Sleep, 1971), a large number of studies were Ziegler, 1992; Larsen et al.,1992; Dore´ et al.,1993). undertaken aimed at restoring the quantitative subsi- To a large extent the same was true for most of dence history of basins on the basis of well data and compressional basin modeling.