NEUROTECHNOLOGY AND DYNAMIC FLOW THE INFLUENCE OF BRAIN STIMULATION TECHNOLOGIES AND NEUROFEEDBACK ON THE SELF AND SELF-UNDERSTANDING Irene C. Molthof s1248618 May 13th, 2016 Master Thesis Philosophy of Science, Technology and Society Track: Philosophy of Technology UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE Supervisor: Dr. Johnny Hartz Søraker Examinator: Dr. Saskia Nagel Neurotechnology and Dynamic Flow: The Influence of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback on the Self and Self-Understanding Neurotechnology and Dynamic Flow The Influence of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback on the Self and Self- Understanding A Thesis by IRENE C. MOLTHOF Submitted to the Educational Affairs office of the faculty of Behavioural, Management and Social Sciences UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE in fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science May 13th, 2016 Philosophy of Science, Technology and Society With as technology of choice: Neurotechnology 2 Neurotechnology and Dynamic Flow: The Influence of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback on the Self and Self-Understanding ABSTRACT In recent years, several technologies have been brought on the market that have the ability to increase or decrease brain activity in specific areas of the brain. Among these are brain stimulation technologies such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), but also neurofeedback training. Such neurotechnologies raise important philosophical, anthropological and ethical questions. Neurotechnologies can for example raise concerns in the areas of authenticity, responsibility or privacy. In my research I focus on the self as one of the potential aspects of consciousness that can be affected by neurotechnology. With ‘self’ I mean in this research the organizational structure of consciousness that determines how experiences are perceived by an individual. In order to schematically analyze in what ways the self could be influenced via brain stimulation technologies and neurofeedback, I propose a theoretical apparatus that describes the self and exists out of some of the aspects through which the self is constituted. These aspects are first determined and explored on a phenomenological level, followed by supporting contemporary empirical findings and neurophysiological explanations. One aspect of consciousness that I discuss in particular is self-understanding, a post-reflective aspect of self that describes as what one understand oneself and one’s brain. The analysis shows that while neurotechnologies are already employed in clinical settings, much of the underlying neurological pathways are still unknown. Furthermore, neurophysiological research shows that activity in specific brain areas is can be associated with self-specific stimuli. This lends credence to the suspicion that neurotechnologies can influence the self by increasing or decreasing brain activity in these areas. On a phenomenological level, I exhibit how the self can be changed through influence on the various mechanisms that constitute the self. I suggest that it is important for practitioners to be aware of the effects of the information that is provided to subjects, and that these effects should also be included in the context of policy-making. I furthermore argue that it should be taken into account that on a societal level, neurofeedback and brain stimulation technologies can lead to a change in existing viewpoints towards the self and the brain. 3 Neurotechnology and Dynamic Flow: The Influence of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback on the Self and Self-Understanding ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is strange to finally be able to say that the period of my life that covered writing this thesis, is almost over. Especially the last couple of months were difficult. It was challenging to walk the line between pushing myself to go on, and knowing when to stop. I think in the end I can honestly say that I gave it my all, while also having continued doing the things that I like and that would contribute to student activism at campus, such as being on the board of Ideefiks, achieving an orange belt in Jiu Jitsu with Arashi and guiding a ‘doegroep’ during the Kick-In. For these and many more reasons I feel like I had a very full and joyous student life. First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Johnny Hartz Søraker for his guidance and encouragement. His interesting questions, advice and ideas have kept me sharp and motivated during this process. I also want to thank Saskia Nagel, for her expertise on my technology of choice, and for making the time to invest some of this expertise into making me a more critical writer. Furthermore, I would like to thank all of the professors in our department for the classes they have taught, class discussions they have initiated and numerous new perspectives they have provided me with throughout the years. I would also like to thank my family. My mom, for the warmest heartfelt support at exactly the right times. My dad, for always being there for me with a never depleted pool of words of wisdom. Both of my sisters Helle and Dionne, for their unconditional compassion during this process. I also want to thank my fellow members and friends at Ideefiks and of course my fellow board members Tom, Joeri, Wouter, Karin and Niels with whom I had great times that I would not have missed for the world. My friends at Arashi, who taught me that it’s okay to fall down sometimes, but also that you are always capable of more than you know. I also want to thank Leonie, Eline, Metta, Chiron, Alex and many others, that have made my student time in Enschede so lively, not only during the final years but also during my Biology and Medical Laboratory research bachelor. Finally my thankfulness goes out to Paul, for being my best friend through all this, and also my most sincere critic, both things that I am really glad to have had beside me in achieving this goal. 4 Neurotechnology and Dynamic Flow: The Influence of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback on the Self and Self-Understanding TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. 7 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8 Neurotechnology and its Potential to Change Brain Activity: A Basic Introduction .............. 12 A Basic Introduction to Neurotechnology ................................................................. 12 Fundamental issues in Neuroscience ......................................................................... 25 Neurotechnological Implications: Two Exemplary Cases and the Questions They Raise 27 Can we Believe the Promised Effects of Neurotechnologies? .................................. 30 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 33 How Neurotechnology Can Be Understood In View of Existing Neuroscientific Issues and Conceptions .............................................................................................................................. 35 Neuroplasticity ........................................................................................................... 36 The Unnaturalness of Neurotechnological Applications ........................................... 37 The Differences between Neurofeedback and Brain Stimulation Technologies ....... 43 A Comparison between Neurotechnologies and Drug Use ....................................... 46 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 52 Consciousness and the Self ...................................................................................................... 54 A Conceptualization of Consciousness ..................................................................... 55 Theories of the Self: Unified Consciousness or a Bundle of Perceptions? ............... 59 The Stream of Consciousness .................................................................................... 63 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 65 A Neurophysiological Explanation of Consciousness, the Self, and Self-Perspectival Organization ............................................................................................................................. 67 The Dynamic Organization of Consciousness ........................................................... 68 The Dynamic Organization of Consciousness: A Neurophysiological Approach .... 71 A Post-Reflective Self: Self-Understanding .............................................................. 77 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 85 In What Way May Changes in Aspects of Dynamic Flow Contribute to a Change in Self and Self-understanding under the Influence of Neurotechnology? ................................................ 87 5 Neurotechnology and Dynamic Flow: The Influence of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback on the Self and Self-Understanding To What Extent Can the Effects of Brain Stimulation Technologies and Neurofeedback be Predicted and Analyzed? ........................................................................ 87 Possible Consequences of BST’s That May Be Expected .......................................