religions Article “Equal Rites”: Fragmenting and Healing Bodies in the Early Modern Bay of Kotor Milena Ulˇcar Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Art History, University of Belgrade, Cika Ljubina 18/20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; [email protected] Received: 17 August 2019; Accepted: 25 October 2019; Published: 2 November 2019 Abstract: The aim of this paper is to examine the exchange of practices that developed when treating the bodies of ordinary laymen and those of saints. Body parts that had been obtained in unorthodox ways were used in private households in a manner strongly resembling the official methods of relic veneration. Conversely, the church authorities carried out repairs to damaged reliquaries by adopting an approach that mirrored the ways in which common people were healed in their homes (the application of holy images, use of votive gifts, etc.). Keywords: reliquaries; body-part reliquaries; post-Tridentine religion; Bay of Kotor; Republic of Venice; healing; domestic devotion 1. Introduction The main arguments in this article will be supported by a rather peculiar body of visual and archival data, including broken reliquaries (severely damaged in an earthquake that occurred in the 17th century), incomplete verbal descriptions of long lost amulets, and testimonies given by mostly illiterate witnesses at local church court hearings. The methodological approach examines domestic practices that occurred in the Bay of Kotor in what is today Montenegro, most of which were considered blasphemous, and theoretically reframes them as logical counterparts to complementary institutional practices. On the other hand, institutionalised church practices, which were still unorthodox for their time, despite being officially approved, I will treat as an important clue to understanding the “rules” of domestic piety. The main focus will be on two related processes: the fragmenting and healing of the body in the early modern period. I will consider the act of fragmentation as not only implying use of relics and reliquaries, but also the dismemberment and manipulation of the bodies of common laymen, both living and deceased. In the same manner, I will examine healing practices as acts that applied equally to the suffering of “ordinary” bodies as to those of saints. The topographical and chronological focus of this research is the 17th and 18th century Bay of Kotor, a small coastal area in the South-Western Balkans. Kotor, the capital of this region, and nearby villages Perast and Prˇcanj, were ruled by the Venetian government from the early 15th century until the fall of the Republic of Venice at end of the 18th century. Surrounding towns and villages such as Herceg Novi and Orahovac remained under the rule of the Ottoman Empire (Butorac 1998, 2000). Due to the nature of the archival and material evidence and its redistribution, I will place the focus of this analysis on the areas where the Catholic Church was dominant. In a somewhat odd turn, official archival records will serve my interpretation as the main source when analysing domestic devotional practices, whereas the parallel examination of official church practices will be approached solely through the analysis of damaged physical evidence. Similar inversions, which occur throughout the paper, add support to the main hypothesis: the dualistic nature of the domestic and the institutional, i.e., private and public, can be understood as part of the same “devotional spectrum” rather than as mutually exclusive (Ryan 2003, pp. 281–90). Religions 2019, 10, 606; doi:10.3390/rel10110606 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 606 2 of 18 2. Fragmentation of the Dead Body During the 17th and 18th century, a significant number of sermons urged believers in the Bay of Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 Kotor not to excavate and fragment the bodies of the deceased. They described this act as a practice that “had2. Fragmentation already made of twothe Dead priests Body abandon this area”.1 Despite the condemnation, the excavation and fragmentationDuring the of 17th bodies and occurred18th century, regularly, a significant and nu thember people of sermons who engagedurged believers in it believedin the Bay theyof were “being healedKotor not and to excavate saved from and fragment death”2 .the As bodies we learn of the from deceased. court They records, described men this and act women as a practice used bones and otherthat parts“had already taken frommade corpsestwo priests for abandon various this rituals, area”.1 whichDespite theythe condemnation, performed atthe home excavation to ward off everydayand misfortune, fragmentation sickness, of bodies andoccurred death. regularly, This domestic and the people use ofwho fragmented engaged in it human believed bodies they were resembled “being healed and saved from death”2. As we learn from court records, men and women used bones the institutional treatment of saintly bodies. Both were treasured, used in rituals, and expected to offer and other parts taken from corpses for various rituals, which they performed at home to ward off protectioneveryday in times misfortune, of distress. sickness, However, and death. to This understand domestic use the of significance fragmented human of these bodies “sinful resembled acts”, we are requiredthe to institutional examine the treatment nuances of thatsaintly the bodies. process Both of we bodilyre treasured, fragmentation used in rituals, signified and expected for contemporary to believersoffer in protection the Bay of in Kotor. times of distress. However, to understand the significance of these “sinful acts”, Thewe focal are required point of to fragmentation, examine the nuances seen that from th thise process point of of bodily view, fragmentation was the relics signified in the for chapel of the Cathedralcontemporary of Saint believers Tryphon in the in Bay Kotor of Kotor. (Figure 1). Dozens of silver body parts—mainly legs, arms, The focal point of fragmentation, seen from this point of view, was the relics in the chapel of the and heads—have housed the bones of saints for centuries and are displayed on shelves around the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon in Kotor (Figure 1). Dozens of silver body parts—mainly legs, arms, and casket holdingheads—have Saint housed Tryphon’s the bones remains of saints (Tomi´c for centurie 2009s, and p. 35;are Ulˇcardisplayed 2017 on, shelves p. 6) (Figure around2 the). Duringcasket Saint Tryphon’sholding Day Saint celebrations, Tryphon’s these remains reliquaries (Tomić 2009, were p. displayed 35; Ulčar in2017, the p. church 6) (Figure and 2). carried During in Saint processions along theTryphon’s streets Day of Kotor, celebrations, where these common reliquaries people were coulddisplayed observe in the church (and touch)and carried the in fragmented processions bodies of theiralong patron the saintstreets and of Kotor, his entourage where common (Stjepˇcevi´c people co 1938uld observe).3 The (and silver touch) limbs the fragmented and heads, bodies which were 3 alwaysof displayed their patron as saint a group, and his off entourageered an institutionally (Stjepčević 1938). approved The silver image limbs and of fragmented heads, which bodies.were This always displayed as a group, offered an institutionally approved image of fragmented bodies. This was crucialwas crucial for ritual for ritual and and devotional devotional acts acts in in the the earlyearly modern modern Bay Bay of ofKotor. Kotor. Figure 1.FigureSaint 1. Tryphon’sSaint Tryphon’s relic relic chapel, chapel, 1704–1708, 1704–1708, Kotor, Kotor, Sain Saintt Tryphon’s Tryphon’s Cathedral Cathedral (photo (photo by Stevan by Stevan Kordi´c).Kordić). 1 Propovjedi. PROP VIII. p. 182. (Parish Archive in Perast NAP n.d.a). 2 Ibid., p. 179. 3 The Saint Tryphon’s Day procession is described in: Timotej Cizila. BoveD’Oro, NAP R XVI. (Parish Archive in Perast NAP n.d.b). 1 Propovjedi. PROP VIII. p. 182. (Parish Archive in Perast NAP n.d.a). 2 Ibid., p. 179. 3 The Saint Tryphon’s Day procession is described in: Timotej Cizila. BoveD’Oro, NAP R XVI. (Parish Archive in Perast NAP n.d.b). Religions 2019, 10, 606 3 of 18 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18 FigureFigure 2. Reliquaries, 2. Reliquaries, 16th–18th 16th–18th century, century, Kotor,Kotor, Saint Tryphon’s Tryphon’s relic relic chapel chapel (photo (photo by author). by author). By contrast,By contrast, the same the same act act of dissolutionof dissolution was was consideredconsidered sinful sinful when when other other kinds kinds of bodies of bodiescame came into question. As the popular sacral play of this period recalls, during his suffering on the cross, into question. As the popular sacral play of this period recalls, during his suffering on the cross, Christ’s Christ’s body was in danger of fragmentation. Missandro, one of the main protagonists in body wascondemnation in danger and of fragmentation. crucifixion in Nenadi Missandro,ć’s play, was one determined of the main to break protagonists Christ’s legs in condemnationwith a heavy and crucifixionmace in and Nenadi´c’splay, divide his body was into determinedpieces: “He should to break be cut/And Christ’s ripped legs withinto pieces/Let a heavy macethem trusting and divide his body into(his pieces: Resurrection)/remain “He should be deluded!” cut/And Longinus ripped into opposed pieces this/Let suggestion them trusting strongly: (his “Great Resurrection) injustice /remain deluded!”would Longinus it be/to do opposed that even this to deceased!” suggestion (Nenadi strongly:ć 1975, “Great p. 266).injustice The fragmentation would it of be Christ’s/to do body that even to would result in the destruction of his identity. Had it been performed, he would have failed to fulfil deceased!” (Nenadi´c 1975, p. 266). The fragmentation of Christ’s body would result in the destruction his purpose. Bodies of saints, on the other hand, acquired power through an act that was similar, of his identity.although Hadusually it beenless violen performed,t in nature he (Bynum would 1991).