From ancient to modern: the place and importance for languages other than English in Australia’s national interest by Jennifer Joan Baldwin BA, BTheol, Grad Dip Career Devpt, M Appl Ling Thesis presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Historical and Philosophical Studies of the University of Melbourne March 2015 Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Produced on archival quality paper Abstract This thesis investigates the history of language offerings at the tertiary level in Australian institutions from the beginnings of university education with the founding of the University of Sydney in 1851. It argues that the successive influences of British university traditions, Federation, Australia’s growing political and economic engagement with the wider world, and Australia’s developing identity as a multicultural and multilingual nation, are reflected in the introduction and maintenance of languages other than English into Australian university curricula. This historical analysis has drawn upon archival, government and oral sources and scholarly literature on higher education with an emphasis on languages within the tertiary sector from the period of expansion and reform after World War Two. The thesis contends that the evolving politics and perceptions of ‘the national interest’ have been dominant influences on the establishment of language policies and government funding decisions regarding language teaching. Certain languages have been introduced at different times taking into account the prevailing circumstances of Australia’s global economy, its trade relationships, its diplomatic ties and its security and defence imperatives as well as domestic concerns. The concept of national interest has, more broadly, been variously defined by governments, universities and interest groups in relation to both the teaching of specific languages and the collective educational and vocational value of language teaching within tertiary education at different times in the history of Australia. The thesis surveys the place of language instruction in Australian colonial and post-Federation universities where British university traditions prescribing the place of classical (Latin, Ancient Greek) and modern languages (French, German, Italian) within a liberal education were influential in Australia. It then turns to the increasing involvement of the Federal government in the expansion of the university sector from the mid-twentieth century. The post-World War Two emphasis on research and technological education was to influence curriculum and the inclusion of language teaching. Demographic change within the Australian population as a result of large-scale migration meant that the nation was increasingly multilingual and by the 1970s the policy of multiculturalism was officially introduced. Both Federal governments and universities increasingly acknowledged the languages of migrant communities, as these communities lobbied to retain their cultural heritage, including tertiary language teaching. The role of philanthropic donations to support ‘community languages,’ such as Yiddish and Ukrainian, is evaluated in this context. i The thesis then turns to the influences of international trade and foreign policy on language teaching, most notably in relation to Australia’s increasing engagement with the Asian region. The emphasis on trade meant that successive governments from the 1980s have variously supported the teaching of languages that were seen to advance Australia’s economic interests, such as Chinese, Japanese, and Indonesian. Nevertheless there were some languages, such as Arabic which while of national economic and cultural significance, have not received the same level of government or institutional support. By the 1980s and 1990s, reform to the national tertiary sector and increased budgetary strains were to have an impact on the range of language offerings in Australian universities. This has resulted in an increasing reliance on philanthropic funds to enable languages to be taught where neither government nor university funding was forthcoming. The thesis concludes by outlining how university language academics and educators have been involved in public discussions about the continuation of the teaching of, and research into, specific languages as well as all languages other than English, not just those perceived to be in the economic national interest. ii Declaration This is to certify that: (i) The thesis comprises only my original work (ii) Due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used (iii) The thesis is less than 100,225 words in length, exclusive of tables, bibliographies and appendices. Signature……………………………………………… Date…………………………. iii Acknowledgements I would firstly like to thank my principal supervisor, Professor Kate Darian-Smith of the School of Historical and Philosophical Studies and my associate supervisor, Professor John Hajek of the School of Languages and Linguistics. I have been very appreciative of Kate’s guidance to me on the writing of history and John’s insights and advice of the contemporary world of languages and linguistics. Both of them have encouraged me in the value of my research and their belief in me that ‘I can do it.’ Many people also have assisted my research through interviews and conversations and advice. They are: Professor Kent Anderson, Associate Professor Sophie Arkoudis, Associate Professor Judith Armstrong , Dr Mark Baker, Professor Richard Baldauf Jr, Ms Anna Berghamre, Dr Josh Brown, Dr Jennifer Bryce, Dr Adrian Buzo, Mrs Danielle Charak, Professor Emeritus Rafe de Crespigny, Dr Robert Dessaix, Professor Emeritus Colin Duckworth (deceased), Professor Emeritus Gareth Evans, Professor Emeritus Elliott Forsyth (deceased), Professor Stephen Garton, Ms Nicole Hart, Professor David Horner, Mr Roy Hay, Professor Bruce Jacobs, Dr Andrew Jamieson, Ms Suman Joshi, Ms Lydia Kinda, Dr Halina Koscharsky, Dr Robert Lagerberg, Professor Mike Levy, Professor Joe Lo Bianco, Professor David Lowe, Professor Emeritus Colin Mackerras, Mr Luke Madden, Ms Jenny McGregor, Dr Kate McGregor, Associate Professor Daniel Martín, Professor Emeritus Colin Nettelbeck, Professor Catrin Norrby, Mr Les Oates, Professor Emeritus David Penington, Professor Emerita Marian Quartly, Dr George Santoro, Professor Emeritus Boris Schedvin, Associate Professor Ziva Shavitsky, Professor Emeritus Tony Stephens, Dr Margaret Travers, Professor David Walker, Professor Emeritus Louis Waller, Professor John Webb, Dr Sonya Wurster, Professor Emeritus Wang Gungwu. I have been greatly assisted by the staff of Archives and Special Collections, the History of the University Unit, the University Records and Policy Department at the University of Melbourne, and archival department staff at the Universities of Adelaide, New South Wales, Queensland, Sydney, Western Australia and the Australian National University. I am grateful to Kerry O’Connor of the Modern Language Teachers’ Association of Victoria for access to archival copies of the journal Babel. I would also like to pay tribute to former staff members of the Australian Council for Educational Research who encouraged my early educational endeavours so long ago: Dr Margaret Batten, Professor Bruce Keepes (deceased), Professor Emeritus Jillian Maling. Finally I would thank Ramses and Athena for their companionship and my partner, Amanda Burritt for her steadfast belief in my ability to see this thesis through and her loving support throughout the whole of my research. iv Table of Contents Chapter One Introduction 1 Chapter Two Universities for Australia 22 Chapter Three Post-war expansion 57 Chapter Four Multicultural and multilingual 98 Chapter Five Three trade languages: Chinese, Japanese and Indonesian 137 Chapter Six Three eclectic languages: Korean, Russian and Arabic 178 Chapter Seven Languages in the 1990s- the context and the changes 209 Chapter Eight The Asian or the global century? 240 Conclusion 269 Bibliography 277 Appendix 1 Countries of last residence of settler arrivals in Australia 1949 to 1954 327 Appendix 2 Birthplace of the Australian population for the 1954 census 328 Appendix 3 Community languages taught in the tertiary sector 1974-1994 329 Appendix 4 Language department structures in major universities in 1991 330 Appendix 5 Language department structures in major universities in 1999 331 Appendix 6 Go8 universities’ languages offerings websites for 2013 332 Appendix 7 Universities’ statements of students’ personal and career benefits of language learning 333 Appendix 8 Languages offerings in Australian universities 2011 335 v Abbreviations AACLAME Australian Advisory Council on Languages and Multicultural Education AAH Australian Academy of the Humanities ABC Australian Broadcasting Commission ACPEA Australian Council on Population and Ethnic Affairs AFMLTA Australian Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations AHRC Australian Humanities Research Council AIMA Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs ALLP Australian Literacy and Language Policy ALP Australian Labor Party ALTC Australian Learning and Teaching Council ANU Australian National University ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AUC Australian Universities Commission AVCC Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee BHP Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited BRITAC British Academy for the humanities and social sciences CAAR Council for Australian-Arab Relations CAE College of Advanced Education CEDA Committee