Globalizing “Sacred Knowledge”: South Asians and the Theosophical Society, 1879-1930 by Maria Moritz a Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Approved Dissertation Committee Professor Harald Fischer-Tiné, ETH Zürich Professor Nicola Spakowski, Universität Freiburg Professor Hans Kippenberg, Jacobs University Bremen Professor Sebastian Conrad, Freie Universität Berlin Date of Defense: 23 March 2012 School of Humanities and Social Sciences Statutory Declaration (on Authorship of a Dissertation) I, Maria-Sofia Moritz, hereby declare that I have written this PhD thesis independently, unless where clearly stated otherwise. I have used only the sources, the data and the support that I have clearly mentioned. This PhD thesis has not been submitted for conferral of degree elsewhere. I confirm that no rights of third parties will be infringed by the publication of this thesis. Berlin, April 27, 2017 Signature ___________________________________________________________ Contents Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 4 List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................................... 5 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................ 14 1.2 Research Angles .............................................................................................................................. 15 1.2.1 “Sacred Knowledge” ................................................................................................................... 15 1.2.2 Globalization ................................................................................................................................. 17 1.2.3 Agents .............................................................................................................................................. 21 1.3 Defining/Limiting/Justifying ..................................................................................................... 22 1.4 State of Research ............................................................................................................................. 24 1.5 Sources ................................................................................................................................................ 30 1.6 Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................................................. 32 1 The Theosophical Society and its South Asian Members ........................................... 35 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 35 1.2 The Theosophical Society: from New York to Bombay .................................................. 39 1.3 Western Intellectual Crisis and the DiscoVery of India .................................................. 44 1.4 The Appeal of Theosophy to India’s bi-lingual Intelligentsia ...................................... 52 1.4.1 Privileging Indian Religions ................................................................................................... 52 1.4.2 Anti-Christian Position ............................................................................................................. 54 1.5 Beyond Parochialism .................................................................................................................... 58 1.5.1 The Cosmopolitan Thought Zone of Theosophy ........................................................... 61 1.5.2 Colonial Cosmopolitanism ...................................................................................................... 65 1.5.3 “Spiritual Cosmopolitanism” .................................................................................................. 69 1.5.4 “Extranational cosmopolitanism” ........................................................................................ 76 1.5.5 Indian Critique at Theosophy ................................................................................................ 85 2 Traditionalizing the Modern Globalization: B. P. Wadia (1881-1958) ................. 92 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 92 2.2 Towards a Universal Brotherhood of Theosophy ............................................................ 97 2.2.1 Theosophical conceptions of Brotherhood ...................................................................... 99 2.2.2 UniVersal Brotherhood in the British Commonwealth? .......................................... 104 2.2.3 A UniVersal Brotherhood of Workers? ........................................................................... 107 2.2.4 Experiencing the Theosophical Brotherhood in the US .......................................... 115 2.3 Inventing a Theosophical Tradition .................................................................................... 118 2.3.1 Resignation as continuity ..................................................................................................... 119 2.3.2 The United Lodge of Theosophists in New York ........................................................ 123 2.3.3 The United Lodge of Theosophists as Brotherhood ................................................. 129 Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................................................................... 136 3 A “Spiritual Entrepeneur” of Pan-Asian Buddhism: Anagarika Dharmapala (1864-1933) ............................................................................................................................ 139 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 139 3.2 Early Theosophical affiliations with Henry Steel Olcott ............................................. 146 3.3 Integrating Local Practices with a Global Superstructure of Buddhism .............. 151 3.3.1 Representing Buddhism at the World Parliament 1893 ........................................ 151 3.3.2 The Maha Bodhi Society in Calcutta ................................................................................. 159 3.3.3 Bodh Gaya as the “Buddhist Jerusalem” ......................................................................... 165 3.4 The “Empire of Righteousness” from Ceylon to Hawaii .............................................. 168 3.4.1 Pan-Asian Buddhism .............................................................................................................. 168 3.4.2 Japan: the Buddhist Civilization Role Model ................................................................ 175 3.4.3 Education as the Quintessential “Civilizing Mission” ............................................... 179 Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................................................................... 189 4 De-Localization of “Sacred Knowledge”: Krishnamurti (1895-1986) ................. 191 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 191 4.2 The Messianic Cult in the Order of the Star in the East ............................................... 194 4.2.1 A Venue for the Coming: the Amphitheatre in Sydney ............................................ 203 4.2.2 A Body of Knowledge: Krishnamurti’s Celebrated Body ........................................ 206 4.3 “By whose authority?” ............................................................................................................... 213 4.3.1 Internationalism for a New Era: Krishnamurti and the League of Nations .... 213 4.3.2 A New Education for a New Era ......................................................................................... 216 4.3.3 A Culture between the Past and the Future: India .................................................... 220 4.3.4 Preparing for the Future: The International Self-Preparation Groups ............. 222 4.4 De-localizing “Sacred Knowledge” ....................................................................................... 226 4.4.1 A Doubting Audience: Youth and Non-Believers ....................................................... 226 4.4.2 A Temporary Setting: The Outdoor Camps ................................................................... 230 4.4.3 A Truth at Call: Krishnamurti’s Independent Message to the World ................ 235 Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................................................................... 241 Conclusion: Alternative Concepts of World Order ............................................................... 243 5 Bibliography ...........................................................................................................................