TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE: An examination of multicultural dynamics in the Japanese visual kei movement Hayley Maxime Bhola 5615A031-9 January 10, 2017 A master’s thesis submitted to the Graduate School of International Culture and Communication Studies Waseda University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE 2 Abstract of the Dissertation The purpose of this dissertation was to examine Japanese visual kei subculture through the theoretical lens of transculturation. Visual kei (ヴィジュアル系) is a music based subculture that formed in the late 1980’s in Japan with bands like X Japan, COLOR and Glay. Bands are recognized by their flamboyant (often androgynous appearances) as well as their theatrical per- formances. Transculturation is a term originally coined by ethnographer Fernando Ortiz in re- sponse to the cultural exchange that took place during the era of colonization in Cuba. It de- scribes the process of cultural exchange in a way that implies mutual action and a more even dis- tribution of power and control over the process itself. This thesis looked at transculturation as it relates to visual kei in two main parts. The first was expositional: looking at visual kei and the musicians that fall under the genre as a product of transculturation between Japanese and non- Japanese culture. The second part was an effort to label visual kei as a transcultural space that is able to continue the process of transculturation by fostering cultural exchange and development among members within the subculture in Japan. Chapter 1 gave a brief overview of the thesis and explains the motivation behind conduct- ing the research. It also explains the main objectives of the research and lists the two main re- search questions which are: (1) “Can visual kei subculture be considered a product of a transcul- turation process?”, and (2) “Can visual kei be considered a transcultural space that allows for an active, non-hierarchical exchange of cultures?”. It also outlined the target groups for data collec- tion which were: bands currently in the visual kei scene and non-Japanese participants of visual kei currently residing in Japan. Chapter 2 dealt with the literature that guided the majority of the thesis. First it provided an overview of the history of visual kei, from the circumstances leading up to the inception of TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE 3 early bands, to its present state. It also delved into some of the literature surrounding visual kei. Many of the research done on visual kei looked at it in tandem with other topics. More specifi- cally, visual kei was often researched along with other elements falling under the umbrella of “Japanese pop culture” such as anime, manga, lolita fashion and the otaku subculture. It also looked at the gender and power dynamics between and among participants of the subculture. Specifically fans of the bands and how they organize their community, terms unique to visual kei etc. Then it looked at the major literature including transculturation theory as it relates to Fer- nando Ortiz and James Lull. Following Lull’s conceptualisation of transculturation, it also looked at the concepts of hybridization and indigenization. For the purpose of the thesis, the terms “culture” as well as “subculture” were clearly defined. The main theory of subculture used for this thesis was found in Dick Hebdige’s Subculture: The Meaning of Style. Chapter 3 gave a detailed explanation and reasoning behind the methods used for data collection and evaluation. Because of the cultural and interpersonal nature of the research, the theoretical framework was ethnographically based. Survey methods were used for collecting primary data which consisted of an anonymous self-administered questionnaire distributed online and a follow-up semi-structured interview (also online) with some of the questionnaire respond- ents. Responses and participation were completely voluntary in nature and all necessary steps were taken to make sure that their identities remained anonymous. Secondary data collection in- volved collecting interviews of visual kei bands published in English via international news sites. Most of which are independent sites created for the purpose of spreading and supporting the in- terest of Japanese popular culture overseas. Particularly in Europe and the Americas. Various interviews were collected and coded for answers pertaining to culture, the meaning of visual kei and the self-identification of the bands. TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE 4 Chapter 4 gives the results of the data collected in regards to distribution/figures and how well the information gathered worked to answer the research questions asked. The data col- lected via the secondary data collection methods was used to answer research question 1. While the data collected via the primary research methods was used to answer research question 2. Chapter 5 is the final chapter, wrapping up the dissertation. It discussed if and how well the research questions were answered as well as listing any unexpected findings and improve- ments for further research. In regards to research question 1, “Can visual kei subculture be con- sidered a product of a transculturation process?”, the research conducted and the data collected led to the conclusion that yes, it can. This was evident in the way that visual bands through their musical influences, style and self-identification can be classified as cultural hybrids. The subcul- ture has continually integrated elements of different cultures ensuring that transculturation is al- ways taking place. However, to understand this even deeper required a look into the business as- pects of visual kei which this thesis did not go into, and so further research was desired. In re- gards to research question 2, “Can visual kei be considered a transcultural space that allows for an active, non-hierarchical exchange of cultures?”, the conclusion was that contrary to the initial assumption, the transculturation takes place on a much smaller personal, rather than public level. Non-Japanese participants underwent transculturation in order to better integrate themselves into the specific culture of participation that surrounds visual kei in Japan. Furthermore, a hierarchy was identified when aspects such the culture within live houses and among fans was taken into account, something that came up often during the interviews. This led to the further conclusion that more research was necessary in regards to live houses and the significant community spaces found in visual kei. TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE 5 Acknowledgements I’d like to thank my advisor, Professor Graham Law who first saw potential in my rough research plan, answered all my desperate application emails and constantly vouched for me as a worthy student. Thank you for being such a huge source of help and advice over the past 3 years. Your humor and honestly made studying a million times easier. Thank you to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and Waseda University for giving me the once unimaginable opportunity to study in Japan. To my roommate Massiel, thank you for always giving helpful advice and being strict with me about getting work done and taking breaks. Thanks for being the first person to read this completed thesis. Your support is invaluable and you’ve become like a big sister to me. Thanks to the friends that supported me. Starr and Eman for being the first to help me find my way here. I would not have survived the homesickness, language blocks and terrible dorm rooms without you both. To Melissa and Ressa for all the great hangouts and silly conver- sations on Line. You made a portion of grad school much more fun. Thanks to my family. To my father, who’s main advice to me has always been, “School comes first.”. You instilled in me the value of education and it’s gotten me this far. To grandma for worrying about me in a way that only a grandma could. To my sisters Halina and Hasmina, I keep pushing to do my best so that you have someone to look up to. Not to do exactly as I do, but to know that you can do anything. A final thank you to my mother, because no matter what I wanted to do, you always be- lieved in me. TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE 6 Table of Contents Abstract of the Dissertation 2 Acknowledgements 5 Chapter 1: Introduction 7 1.1 Motivation 7 1.2 Objectives and Research Questions 9 1.3 Target groups for research and data collection 10 1.4 Thesis outline 11 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theory 13 2.1 Visual kei 13 2.2 Transculturation 34 2.3 Culture and Subculture 37 2.4 Theory in Context 42 Chapter 3: Methodology 44 Research Method: Ethnography 44 3.1. Self-representation of visual kei bands 46 3.2 Quantitative survey - Questionnaire 50 3.3 Qualitative Interview 53 Chapter 4: Analysis 56 4.1 Secondary Data 56 4.2 Questionnaire 71 4.3 Interview 77 Chapter 5: Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendations 90 References 96 Appendix A: Quantitative Data Collection - Survey 103 Appendix B: Qualitative Data Collection - Interview 108 Appendix C: Secondary Data - Interview Coding Template 110 Appendix D: Secondary Data References 117 TRANSCULTURAL SPACES IN SUBCULTURE 7 Chapter 1: Introduction This thesis will seek to analyze Japanese visual kei subculture through the lens of trans- culturation. Transculturation is a term used to describe the process of cultural exchange in a way that implies mutual action, mutual contribution and an even distribution of power. My research will look at transculturation as it relates to visual kei in two parts. The first will be expositional: looking at visual kei and the musicians that fall under the genre as a product of transculturation between Japanese and non-Japanese culture.