Women in Arms: Gender in the Risorgimento, 1848–1861 By Benedetta Gennaro B. A., Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, 1999 M. A., Miami University, 2002 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Italian Studies at Brown University Providence, Rhode Island May 2010 c Copyright 2010 by Benedetta Gennaro This dissertation by Benedetta Gennaro is accepted in its present form by the Department of Italian Studies as satisfying the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date Suzanne Stewart-Steinberg, Advisor Recommended to the Graduate Council Date Caroline Castiglione, Reader Date Massimo Riva, Reader Date David Kertzer, Reader Approved by the Graduate Council Date Sheila Bonde, Dean of the Graduate School iii VITA Benedetta Gennaro was born in Rome on January 18th, 1975. She grew up in Rome and studied at the University of Rome, “La Sapienza” where she majored in Mass Communication. She wrote her undergraduate thesis on the history of the American Public Broadcasting System (1999), after spending a long and snowy winter in the middle of the Nebraskan plains, interning at NET the Nebraska Educational Televi- sion Network. She went on to receive her M.A. in Mass Communication from Miami University (Oxford, Ohio) in 2002. Her master’s thesis focused on an analysis of gender, race, and class in prime-time television opening credits. She decided to move west, to Portland, Oregon, where she worked for three years for the Northwest Film Center, a branch of the Portland Art Museum, organizing the yearly Portland Inter- national Film Festival. In Portland, she began teaching Italian language, film, and culture; first at Portland Community College and the as adjunct faculty at Portland State University where she designed and taught the first course on Italian film ever offered there. She subsequently began her doctorate at Brown, in the Department of Italian Studies, where she taught different levels of Italian language and culture. She also served as teaching assistant for the introductory course in Gender and Sexuality Studies. She has presented her work at many conferences and seminars, most recently iv as invited guest at the Università di Pisa and at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. Her dissertation, “Women in Arms: Gender in the Risorgimento (1848–1861),” focuses on the active participation of women in the battles for Italian Unification. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In researching and writing this dissertation, I was fortunate enough to have been supported, counseled, and encouraged by many people. First of all, I would like to thank Suzanne Stewart-Steinberg, my advisor, without whom this project would have never seen the light of day. She challenged me to revise my arguments and taught me to read closely the sources. Her support inside and outside the Department of Italian Studies has been irreplaceable. I wish to thank Massimo Riva for his enthusiasm and support at every stage: his generosity has facilitated numerous research trips, which have resulted in many stimulating conversations and irreplaceable archival findings. Caroline Castiglione has supported my research from the beginning, her careful reading, and the generosity of having provided me with a room of my own during her sabbatical year from Brown have been crucial for the completion of this work. I would also like to thank David Kertzer for his attentive reading and careful comments. I would also like to thank Cristina Abbona-Sneider and Dedda De Angelis for having fostered my love for teaching and instilled in me a sense of professionalism. I would like to thank all the people that have participated in the Sheridan seminars, who have helped me shape my philosophy of teaching and advised me on public vi speaking. Mona Delgado has been a dear friend and a great source of calmness and advice. My friends at Brown University have been the source of constant help, both emo- tionally and intellectually. In particular, I would like to thank Roberto Bacci because I always knew where to find him and felt a little lost when he left; Erica Moretti, for knowing what I was talking about; Mauro Resmini, for having watched my back dur- ing the most difficult year; and Antonella Sisto, for her intellectual brilliance and un- conditional support. Chiara Valenzano, for teaching me that chemistry is not always bad; Khristina Gonzalez, for having read and edited some of my chapters; Michael Black, Denise Davis, and Lee Millward for their friendship and generosity. Friends and colleagues in the Mellon seminar on “Bodies and Nations” and in the Italian Studies Colloquium were invaluable readers and stimulating conversation partners. Many were the people who supported, encouraged, and inspired me throughout these years. My “Risorgimento” friends, Raffaella Bianchi and Bruno Grazioli with whom I share a passion for the nineteenth century; Lorenzo Benadusi for his historical advice; Emanuele Faccenda and the archivists at the Museo del Risorgimento in Torino: their dedication for preserving our nation’s memory is truly inspirational; Isabella Ricci, former director of the State Archive in Turin, who showed me around and was instrumental in my love for the “Countess;” my Turinese family, especially Paolo Arese and Ursual Isselstein who opened their house to me, providing a wonderful home away from home, with a majestic view of the Alps and the Mole; our breakfast conversations were a constant source of inspiration; Gilles Pécout for his hospitality at the École Normale Supérieure, and generous support; Gian Luca Fruci and Alessio vii Petrizzo for having invited me to present parts of this work in their seminar at the University of Pisa; last, but not least, Sara Tarissi for her unwavering support across the ocean, her patient editing, her iconographic advice, and most of all for a friendship that begun thirty-three years ago. To my families in Italy and Germany for their support, love, and patience. To my father, Maurizio, who still inspires me and who I miss deeply every day. To my mother, Francesca Romana, her unconditional love leaves me speechless. To my brother Lorenzo, my sister-in-law Jaime, and nephew Luca, endless laughter and affec- tion. To my husband, Stefan, who I met “nel mezzo del cammin” and has transformed my life in countless ways. His support, patience, advice, and love count more than words will ever express. The million miles we have accrued in these three years have not slowed us down. To my daughter, Ella, who thinks I am writing about “warring women.” She has grounded me, loved me, and reminded me that there is a whole different, colorful, and joyful life outside of my office. This dissertation is for her. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations xiii Introduction1 1 Centering the Margins 13 1.1 Gender................................... 24 1.1.1 Gender & History......................... 25 1.1.2 Performance............................ 29 1.1.3 Negotiations............................ 32 1.2 Imbalances................................. 37 1.2.1 Subversive Figures........................ 47 2 “O Italiani, io vi esorto alle storie” 53 2.1 Forging Traditions............................ 56 2.1.1 “Liberté,” “Marianne,” and “Mater Dolorosa”......... 59 2.2 Re-Inscriptions: “La figlia del reggimento”............... 63 2.3 Suspensions: 1846–1861......................... 70 2.3.1 Odabella.............................. 70 ix 2.3.2 Stamura.............................. 73 2.3.3 Gazettes.............................. 81 2.3.4 La Bella Gigogin......................... 83 2.4 Retaliations: Post-Unification...................... 87 2.4.1 Catalogues............................. 91 3 Women of 1848–1849 100 3.0.2 1846–1848............................. 102 3.0.3 Women in 1848.......................... 105 3.1 Luigia Battistotti Sassi and Milan’s “Five Glorious Days”....... 109 3.1.1 Life................................. 110 3.1.2 Women and Violence....................... 116 3.1.3 Cross-dressing........................... 119 3.2 Colomba Antonietti and the “Roman Republic”............ 126 3.2.1 Life................................. 127 3.2.2 Icon................................ 130 4 Contessa Della Torre 146 4.1 A Full Life................................. 150 4.1.1 The Countess and Garibaldi................... 157 4.1.2 From Sword to Pen........................ 166 4.2 Recasting the Countess.......................... 188 Conclusions 205 x Bibliography 216 Manuscript Collections and Their Abbreviations............... 216 Primary Sources................................ 216 Secondary Sources............................... 218 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 Il mondo alla rovescia. Stampa popolare toscana del diciannovesimo secolo. Civica Raccolta delle Stampe “Achille Bertarelli,” Castello Sforzesco, Milano..............................3 1.1 Odoardo Borrani, Il 26 aprile 1859, 1861................. 33 2.1 La Fille Du Regiment. Poster, New York................. 66 2.2 Stamura D’Ancona. Book cover. Torino: Baricco & Arnaldi, 1848... 74 2.3 Il giuramento degli Anconetani. 1856................... 80 2.4 Stamura che incendia le macchine d’assedio di Ancona. 1877...... 88 2.5 Anonimo, Tonina Marinelli. Courtesy of the Museo del Risorgimento, Torino.................................... 96 3.1 Luigia Battistotti Sassi. Lithography, Museo del Risorgimento, Torino. 124 3.2 Colomba Antonietti. Lithography, Museo Centrale del Risorgimento, Roma.................................... 139 3.3 Colomba Antonietti.