SPRING/SUMMER 2015 VOL. 66, No. 1 & 2 SPRINGFall/SUMMER 2015 2015 VOL. 66,V No.OL. 1 66,& 2No. 3 inia Fall 2015 VOL. 66, No. 3 rg ORGN. AGE SUMMER/SPRING 2014 VOL. 65, No. 1 & 2 T Vi AID P U.S. POST Permit No. 2276 Richmond, NON-PROFI VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VIRVGIRGINIINIAA JO JOURURNALNAL OF O SFC SIECIENCENCE VIRGINIAVIRGINIA JOURNAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OF SCIENCE SPRING/SUMMER 2015 VOL. 66, No. 1 & 2 Fall 2015 VOL. 66, No. 3 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFIOCFFICIALIAL PUB LPUBICALTICATIOION OFN T OHFE TH VIER GVIRGINIAINIA ACA ACADEMDEMY OFY SOCFI ESCIENCENCE e ginia r Vi eet A23220 oadStr r .B OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE W ess Service Requested giniaAcademyofScienc r Vi ScienceMuseumof Addr 2500 Richmond,V OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Instructions to Authors All manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editor ([email protected]). The Virginia Journal of Science welcomes for consideration original articles and short notes in the various disciplines of engineering and science. Cross-disciplinary papers dealing with advancements in science and technology and the impact of these on man and society are particularly welcome. Submission of an article implies that the article has not been published elsewhere while under consideration by the Journal. Submit manuscripts in electronic form as an MS Word OR WordPerfect file. Tables and figures should NOT be embedded within the body of the manuscript. Place EDITOR ACADEMY OFFICE tables and figures after the Literature Cited. Authors should submit names of three Werner Wieland Executive Officer potential reviewers. All manuscripts must be double-spaced. Do not use special effects Department of Biological Sciences Virginia Academy of Science such as bold or large print. University of Mary Washington 2500 W. Broad St. Fredericksburg, VA 22401 Richmond, VA 23220-2054 The title, author’s name, affiliation, address and e-mail should be placed on a cover Phone: (540) 654-1426 page. An abstract (not to exceed 200 words) summarizing the text, particularly the results and conclusions, is required. The text should follow the general format used by professional journals in the author’s discipline. The Virginia Journal of Science has an on-line style manual (www.vacadsci.org). In-text references should follow the name-year format: (McCaffrey and Dueser 1990) or (Williams et al. 1990). In the ©Copyright, 2015 by the Virginia Academy of Science. The Virginia Journal of Literature Cited section at the end of the article, each reference should include the full Science (ISSN:0042-658X) is published by the Virginia Academy of Science, 2500 W. name of the author(s), year, title of article, title of journal (do not abbreviate), volume Broad Street, Richmond, Virginia 23220-2054. The pages are electronically mastered number and first and last page of the article. For a books, include author(s), year, title, in the Department of Biological Sciences of the University of Mary Washington. The pages or number of pages, publisher and city of publication. Examples: Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no responsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. McCaffrey, Cheryl A. and Raymond D. Dueser. 1990. Plant associations of the Virginia barrier islands. Virginia Journal of Science 41:282-299. Subscription rates: $40.00 per year, domestic and foreign. All foreign remittances must be made in U.S. dollars and are subject to additional postage. Most back issues Spry, A. 1969. Metamorphic Textures. Pergamon Press, New York. 350 pp. are available. Prices vary from $5.00 to $25.00 per issue postpaid. Contact the Business Manager for the price of a specific issue. Each figure and table should be mentioned specifically in the text. All tables, figures and figure legends should be on a separate page at the end of the text. Changes of address, including both old and new zip codes, should be sent promptly Multiple author papers are required to have a statement in the acknowledgments to the following address: Arthur F. Conway, Executive Officer, Virginia Academy indicating the participation and contribution of each author. of Science, 2500 W. Broad Street, Richmond, Virginia 23220-2054. All correspondence relating to remittance, subscriptions, missing issues and other business After revision and prior to final acceptance of an article, the author will be required affairs should be addressed to the Business Manager. to furnish publication-quality files in TIFF or JPEG format of all figures. Keep in mind the page size of the journal, 6 x 9 in (152 x 228 mm), in constructing tables and figures. For instructions to authors, see inside of back cover. An error-free copy of the manuscript in acceptable format is also required. SEE THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE STYLE MANUAL http://www.vacadsci.org/journal.htm VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 66 No. 3 Fa ll, 2015 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE STATE OF VIRGINIA’S ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL SYMPOSIUM, Virginia Academy of Science, May 21, 2015 James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia An Introduction for the Symposium. Richard S. Groover and Werner Wieland ................................................................ 95 Status of Plants in Virginia. Michael H. Renfroe ................................................................................................... 97 Viewing the Status of Virginia’s Environment Through the Lens of Freshwater Fishes. Paul L. Angermeier and Michael J. Pinder ............................................................ 147 Virginia’s Land Mammals: Past and Present, with Some Thoughts About Their Possible Future. John F. Pagels and Nancy D. Moncrief .................................................................. 171 Breeding Birds of Virginia. Bryan D. Watts ........................................................................................................223 Virginia’s Amphibians: Status, Threats and Conservation. Jennifer Sevin and John (J. D.) Kleopfer ............................................................... 277 Freshwater Mussels of Virginia (Bivalvia: Unionidae): An Introduction to Their Life History, Status and Conservation. Jess W. Jones .......................................................................................................... 309 Forest Diversity and Disturbance: Changing Influences and the Future of Virginia’s Forests. Christine J. Small and James L. Chamberlain ........................................................333 Sea Level Rise in Virginia – Causes, Effects and Response. Tal Ezer and Larry P. Atkinson...............................................................................355 Virginia Air Quality: Trends, Exposure, and Respiratory Health Impacts James Blando, My Ngoc Nguyen, Manasi Sheth-Chandra and Muge Akpinar-Elci.....................................................371 Virginia Journal of Science Volume 66, Issue 3 Fall 2015 An Introduction for the Symposium Richard S. Groover1 and Werner Wieland2 1Symposium Coordinator, J. Sargent Reynolds Community College 2Editor, Virginia Journal of Science, University of Mary Washington The Commonwealth of Virginia offers much diversity be it in the form of biota, topography, or habitat. Major rivers belong to Atlantic Ocean, Ohio River and Tennessee River drainages. The extreme southwestern part of the state is part of the Appalachian Plateau where elevations range from 2,700 to 3,000 feet. The highest mountain in Virginia, Mount Rogers (5,729 ft.), occurs in the Valleyd an Ridge Province. Along its eastern boarder lies the Atlantic coast with a series of barrier islands adjacent to the Eastern Shore. This 70-mile long region is part of the Delmarva Peninsula and is separated from the rest of Virginia by the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the contiguous United States. The Commonwealth has numerous environmental challenges with which to contend. Pressures on land-use, water quality, air quality, and impact of climate change exist. The Virginia Academy of Science took the lead to offer summaries on numerous related topics, presented at the 93rd Annual Meeting of the Academy which was held at James Madison University. On May 21, 2015, sixteen speakers presented on the State of Virginia’s environment. The Academy requested all speakers submit manuscripts of their presentations for publication of symposium proceedings in the Virginia Journal of Science. This issue includes articles covering plants, freshwater mussels, freshwater fishes, amphibians, birds and mammals as well as overviews of forests, seal level rise and air quality. Our objective is that this will provide a baseline for future statewide assessments. The following individuals served as referees for manuscripts for this publication: Mark Bushnell, CoastalObsTechServices, LLC; W. Mark Ford, Unit Leader, Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Virginia Tech; Jason Gibson, Virginia Herpetological Society; Jason R. Hill, Virginia Department of Environmental Quality; Rebecca V. LePrell, Div of Environmental Epidemiology, Virginia Department of Health; Stephen McIninch, Center for Environmental Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University; Conley McMullen, James