CULTURE UNDER FIRE: ARMED NON-STATE ACTORS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE IN WARTIME TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................................................... 4 ABOUT GENEVA CALL ............................................................................................................................................................ 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................................................... 5 GLOSSARY OF DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 7 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................... 8 1. Background ............................................................................................................................................................................ 8 2. Study rationale, literature review and methodology .................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 1: INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................... 12 1. INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW (IHL) .............................................................................................................. 13 1.1. Treaty Law ....................................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.1.1. The 1954 Hague Convention ............................................................................................................................ 13 1.1.1.1. Obligations of ANSAs under the 1954 Hague Convention .......................................................... 13 1.1.1.2. Limitations of the 1954 Hague Convention vis-à-vis ANSAs ........................................................ 14 1.1.2. The 1999 Second Protocol ................................................................................................................................ 16 1.1.2.1. Precautions against the effects of hostilities ................................................................................ 16 1.1.2.2. Precautions in attack ........................................................................................................................... 17 1.1.2.3. Respect for cultural property and the test of “imperative military necessity” ....................... 17 1.1.2.4. The enhanced protection regime ...................................................................................................... 17 1.1.2.5. Sanctions ................................................................................................................................................. 18 1.1.3. The 1977 Additional Protocol II to the 1949 Geneva Conventions .......................................................... 19 1.2. Customary International Humanitarian Law ............................................................................................................ 19 1.2.1. The principle of distinction .............................................................................................................................. 20 1.2.2. The principle of precaution ............................................................................................................................. 20 1.2.3. The principle of proportionality ...................................................................................................................... 20 1.2.4. Specific customary rules on the protection of cultural heritage ............................................................. 20 1.2.5. The Hague Regulations .................................................................................................................................... 21 2. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW .................................................................................................................................... 21 2.1. Individual criminal responsibility ............................................................................................................................ 22 2.2. The doctrine of command responsibility .............................................................................................................. 23 3. OTHER SOURCES OF CULTURAL HERITAGE LAW ........................................................................................................ 24 3.1. The 1970 UNESCO Convention ................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2. The 1972 World Heritage Convention ..................................................................................................................... 24 3.3. The 2003 Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention .............................................................................................. 25 3.4. The 2005 UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions .......................................................................................................................... 26 4. INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW ......................................................................................................................... 26 4.1 The human right to participate in cultural life ........................................................................................................ 26 4.2. Cultural heritage within other human rights .......................................................................................................... 27 5. OTHER RELEVANT INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................................................................. 27 5.1. UN Security Council Resolutions ............................................................................................................................... 27 5.2. The 2003 UNESCO Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage ................... 28 5.3. Abu Dhabi Declaration on heritage at risk in the context of armed conflicts ................................................. 29 CULTURE UNDER FIRE: ARMED NON-STATE ACTORS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE IN WARTIME 2 CHAPTER 2: ANSAs ATTITUDES TOWARDS CULTURAL HERITAGE ............................................................................ 30 1. DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TRENDS ......................................................................................................... 31 1.1. The destructive trend ..................................................................................................................................................... 31 1.2. The non-destructive trend ............................................................................................................................................. 33 2. CASE STUDIES ......................................................................................................................................................................... 36 2.1. Mali .................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 2.1.1. Context .................................................................................................................................................................... 36 2.1.2. ANSAs and cultural heritage in Mali .................................................................................................................. 36 2.1.3. International legal framework ........................................................................................................................... 38 2.1.4. Domestic legal framework .................................................................................................................................. 39 2.2. Iraq ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 2.2.1. Context .................................................................................................................................................................... 40 2.2.2. ANSAs and cultural heritage in Iraq .................................................................................................................. 40 2.2.3. International legal framework ........................................................................................................................... 42 2.2.4. Domestic legal framework .................................................................................................................................. 43 2.3. Syria .................................................................................................................................................................................