sustainability Article Effectiveness of Ring Roads in Reducing Traffic Congestion in Cities for Long Run: Big Almaty Ring Road Case Study Assel Nugmanova 1 , Wulf-Holger Arndt 2, Md Aslam Hossain 1 and Jong Ryeol Kim 1,* 1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan 2 Centre for Technology and Society, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +7-7172-70-91-36 Received: 29 May 2019; Accepted: 22 July 2019; Published: 11 September 2019 Abstract: It is common to increase road capacity by constructing ring roads to reduce traffic congestion in city areas, although this is often found to be ineffective in the long run. Accordingly, this study investigates various traffic congestion management approaches and their effectiveness in major cities, and explores an identical transport problem in Almaty, Kazakhstan: The Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD). Several case examples from the existing literature are examined in which various approaches were taken for managing traffic congestion problems, and these approaches are classified into three concepts. The first concept comprises heavy engineering measures such as ring road development, new road construction, expansion of existing roads, etc. Such measures can initially reduce traffic congestion, but often become ineffective with time due to the generation of induced traffic. Many cities have taken Push and Pull measures that ensure more efficient use of existing capacity and have initiated environmentally friendly alternative transportation modes such as decreased car usage; promotion of public transport, biking and walking; minimization of the necessity of people’s movement by changing urban land use patterns; and so on. These approaches have been found to be effective in providing sustainable transportation solutions and are classified as concept 2. Nevertheless, Push and Pull measures might not be enough for managing traffic congestion, and it might be necessary to increase the road capacity through heavy engineering measures, especially if the city experiences heavy transit traffic. This combined approach is categorized as concept 3. Consequently, the BAKAD project is examined under the umbrella of three concepts, and recommendations are provided based on the findings from the experience of different cities and interviews with experts from Almaty city. Both the results and recommendations developed are relevant for this specific case only, and are not necessarily transferable. Keywords: induced traffic; traffic congestion; car use; travel demand management 1. Introduction The economic cost and environmental impact of traffic jams in large metropolitan areas are enormous. For example, the Canadian Taxpayer Alliance found that the cost of traffic was more than $1.5 billion annually without considering the economic costs associated with an extensive consumption of greenhouse gases and severe damage to the environment due to smog generated by inefficiently operated vehicles [1]. In Moscow, a driver lost 127 h per year in traffic congestion [2]. Moreover, in Europe, traffic congestion accounted for 20.3% of total green-house gas emissions, where 88.2% of all GHG emissions were CO2. Traffic congestion was also reported as the main source of other air pollutant emissions, such as NOx (58%), NMVOC (18%), CO (30%), SOx (21%), PM2.5 (27%) and Sustainability 2019, 11, 4973; doi:10.3390/su11184973 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27 Sustainability 2019, 11, 4973 2 of 26 PM2.5 (27%) and PM10 (22%) [3,4]. Many ways to combat traffic congestion have been applied worldwide, and the main goal of these practices is to reduce the time spent on the roads. Traffic PM10 (22%) [3,4]. Many ways to combat traffic congestion have been applied worldwide, and the engineersmain goal ofsee these one practicessolution to is tothe reduce congestion the time proble spentm onas thethe roads.provision Traffi ofc engineersadditional see road one capacity, solution suchto the as congestion through ring problem road development, as the provision road of extens additionalion, rail-over-road road capacity, grade such asseparation, through ringfly overs, road intersectiondevelopment, improvement, road extension, parking rail-over-road lot development, grade separation, toll road incentives fly overs, and intersection so on. One improvement, of the most parkingwidely used lot development, mitigation measures toll road in incentives reducing andcong soestion on. Oneis the of construction/development the most widely used mitigation of ring roadmeasures systems. in reducing congestion is the construction/development of ring road systems. Almaty is the most densely populated city in Kazakhstan, with a large number of cars and heavy tratraffic,ffic, which which tremendously tremendously worsen worsen the current the ecologicalcurrent situation.ecological Tosituation. prevent environmentalTo prevent environmentaldegradation of thedegradation region, as of well the asregion, to relieve as well the as urban to relieve roadnetwork the urban in road Almaty network by diverting in Almaty transit by diverting transit traffic from it, the Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) project has been initiated. traffic from it, the Big Almaty Ring Road (BAKAD) project has been initiated. However, the long-term However, the long-term effectiveness of ring road developments in solving congestion problem is effectiveness of ring road developments in solving congestion problem is mistakenly exaggerated due mistakenly exaggerated due to the exclusion of induced traffic demand phenomena [5]. to the exclusion of induced traffic demand phenomena [5]. In this research, different approaches to reducing traffic congestion and their effectiveness in In this research, different approaches to reducing traffic congestion and their effectiveness in the long run are investigated for major cities around the world. Accordingly, the objectives of this the long run are investigated for major cities around the world. Accordingly, the objectives of this study are to classify these cities’ traffic congestion reduction plans into different concepts and to study are to classify these cities’ traffic congestion reduction plans into different concepts and to compare them to see if building a ring road (bypass) is effective in solving the problem of traffic jams compare them to see if building a ring road (bypass) is effective in solving the problem of traffic jams in the metropolitan areas in the long run by means of decreasing through traffic and personal car in the metropolitan areas in the long run by means of decreasing through traffic and personal car use. use. Consequently, the findings will form the basis for recommendations to address identical Consequently, the findings will form the basis for recommendations to address identical transport transport problems in Almaty city, Kazakhstan, considering the new bypass road—the Big Almaty problems in Almaty city, Kazakhstan, considering the new bypass road—the Big Almaty Ring Road Ring Road (BAKAD) project, which is under construction. (BAKAD) project, which is under construction. 2. Literature Literature Review Review 2.1. Methods Methods Used to Reduce Traffic Traffic CongestionCongestion Polegate, Newbury and other cities in the United Kingdom (UK) and the Netherlands have applied heavyheavy engineeringengineering measures measures only only in solvingin solving traffi trafficc congestion, congestion, without without any sustainable any sustainable urban urbantransport transport policy policy measures. measures. Heavy Heavy engineering engineering measures measures refer to refer building to building a new ringa new road, ring a bypass,road, a bypass,a tunnel a or tunnel road widening.or road widening. It was found It was that, found in cases that, within cases application with application of heavy engineeringof heavy engineering measures measuresonly, there only, was anthere initial was temporary an initial relieftemporary of traffi reliefc congestion, of traffic untilcongestion, induced un tratilffi inducedc filled up traffic the added filled uptransport the added capacity. transport The capacity. evidence The of theevidence induced of the tra ffiinducedc phenomenon traffic phenomenon is taken from is taken the reports from the of post-openingreports of post-opening project evaluations project evaluations (POPE, by Highways(POPE, by England) Highways of England) bypass/ring of roads.bypass/ring These roads. POPE Thesereports POPE compared reports the compared outturn impactsthe outturn of newimpacts ring of and new bypass ring and roads bypass with roads the forecasted with the forecasted values of valuestraffic flows,of traffic and flows, environmental and environmental and economic and ec impacts.onomic Post-evaluationimpacts. Post-evaluation is conducted is conducted one year andone yearfive yearsand five after years the openingafter the ofopening a new road.of a new Figure road.1 summarizes Figure 1 summarizes the POPE the method. POPE method. Figure 1. Approach to the POPE of major schemes. Source: [6]. [6]. Sustainability 2019, 11, 4973 3 of 26 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27 AsAs anan alternativealternative method,method, insteadinstead ofof heavyheavy engineeringengineering measures,measures, Hasselt,Hasselt, Hague,Hague, Utrecht,Utrecht, Malmö,Malmö, Seoul,Seoul, Auckland Auckland and and other other cities cities applied applie transportationd transportation or travel or travel demand demand management management