Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching Edited by Keith Johnson Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching Other books by Keith Johnson Designing Language Teaching Tasks An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching (edited with H. Johnson) Language Teaching and Skill Learning Perspectives in Communicative Language Teaching (edited with D. Porter) Now for English 1–3 Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology Communication in the Classroom (edited with K. Morrow) Communicate in Writing The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching (edited with C. J. Brumfit) Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching Edited by Keith Johnson Editorial matter, selection and Introduction © Keith Johnson 2005 All chapters © their respective authors 2005 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2005 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978–1–4039–2096–6 hardback ISBN-10: 1–4039–2096–6 hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Expertise in second language learning and teaching / edited by Keith Johnson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: The general study of expertise / Keith Johnson – The expert language learner / Joan Rubin – Second language listening expertise / Christine Goh – Reading and expertise / Catherine Wallace – Oral second language writing expertise / Martin Bygate – Second language writing expertise / Sara Cushing Weigle – Training language learning expertise / Steven McDonough – Expertise in teaching / Amy B.M. Tsui – Teacher cognition in language teaching / Simon Borg – Expertise in teacher education / Alan Waters – More than meets the eye / Virginia Samuda. ISBN 1–4039–2096–6 (cloth) 1. Second language acquisition. 2. Language and languages–Study and teaching. 3. Competence and performance (Linguistics) I. Johnson, Keith, 1944– P118.2.E96 2005 418′.0071–dc22 2005051165 10987654321 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne To the memory of Bertie This page intentionally left blank Contents List of Tables and Figures ix Acknowledgements x Notes on Contributors xi Introduction 1 Keith Johnson Part I Expertise in General 9 1 The ‘General’ Study of Expertise 11 Keith Johnson Part II Expertise in Language Learning and Use 35 2 The Expert Language Learner: a Review of Good Language Learner Studies and Learner Strategies 37 Joan Rubin 3 Second Language Listening Expertise 64 Christine Goh 4 Reading and Expertise 85 Catherine Wallace 5 Oral Second Language Abilities as Expertise 104 Martin Bygate 6 Second Language Writing Expertise 128 Sara Cushing Weigle 7 Training Language Learning Expertise 150 Steven McDonough Part III Expertise in Language Teaching 165 8 Expertise in Teaching: Perspectives and Issues 167 Amy B. M. Tsui vii viii Contents 9 Teacher Cognition in Language Teaching 190 Simon Borg 10 Expertise in Teacher Education: Helping Teachers to Learn 210 Alan Waters 11 Expertise in Pedagogic Task Design 230 Virginia Samuda Index 255 List of Tables and Figures Tables Table 1.1 Example expertise studies in various domains 12 Table 9.1 Cognitive influences on language teachers’ classroom practices 193 Table 10.1 Strengths and weaknesses of off- and on-the-job modes of teacher education 214 Figures Figure 2.1 Procedures for self management 38 Figure 2.2 Knowledge and beliefs 41 Figure 2.3 Self-management process 45 Figure 5.1 Working memory in speech production 110 Figure 9.1 Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom practice 192 Figure 9.2 Practices realising the principle of accounting for individual differences 203 Figure 10.1 The teacher learning cycle 215 Figure 10.2 The teacher iceberg 217 Figure 10.3 Kelly’s criteria and the teacher iceberg 218 Figure 10.4 The transition curve 221 Figure 11.1 The design brief given to participants 240 ix Acknowledgements I would like to thank the contributors for their patience and co- operation throughout; also Jill Lake and all others associated with the production of this volume, who possess those same virtues in abundance. I am grateful to Simon Borg and Cambridge University Press for giving permission to use part of Borg’s paper Teacher cognition in language teaching: a review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe and do, which appeared in Language Teaching, Volume 36, 81–109. x Notes on Contributors Simon Borg is Senior Lecturer in TESOL at the School of Education, University of Leeds. His areas of research are teacher cognition, grammar teaching, and the role of research in teachers’ lives. His home page is http://www.education.leeds.ac.uk/research/sborg.htm Martin Bygate is Professor of Applied Linguistics and Language Education at Lancaster University. His main interests are oral language proficiency and development, and tasks for language pedagogy. From 1998–2004 he was editor of the journal Applied Linguistics. Christine Goh teaches undergraduate and postgraduate courses on lan- guage acquisition, speaking and listening research, research methods and language teaching methodology at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Her reseach interests include oracy development in first and second language learn- ing, the role of metacognition in listening and discourse intonation of L2 speakers. Keith Johnson is Professor of Linguistics and Language Education in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, University of Lancaster. He has written a number of books on applied linguistic topics. He is currently interested in expertise studies, and runs a research group in Lancaster which focuses on Language Teaching Expertise (LATEX). Steven McDonough was formerly Lecturer in Applied Linguistics at the University of Essex. He is now retired. He has published books on psychology, strategies, research methods (with Jo McDonough) and Applied Linguistics, and many articles, all in the area of second language learning and teaching. Joan Rubin, Joan Rubin Associates (Wheaton, Maryland) has pio- neered research on the Good Language Learner. Her research over the past thirty years has focused on learner strategies, metacognition, and intervention promoting more effective student management of their learning. Dr Rubin has given teacher training workshops and lectures xi xii Notes on Contributors in many countries including Australia, Hong Kong, Italy, France, Spain, Sweden, Mexico and Egypt among others. Virginia Samuda has been a language teacher, materials writer, teacher trainer and classroom reseacher in the UK, US, Latin America and SE Asia. She is currently researching task design at Lancaster University. Amy B.M. Tsui is Chair Professor in the Faculty of Education, the University of Hong Kong. Her research interests include teacher educa- tion, language policy, spoken discourse analysis, and corpus linguistics. Catherine Wallace is Reader in Education in the School of Culture, Language and Communication at the Institute of Education, University of London. She is the author of a number of publications on the teach- ing of reading, most recently: Critical Reading in Language Education (2003). Alan Waters is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, University of Lancaster. He has been involved in a number of English language teacher and trainer training projects around the world. His main research interests are in teacher learning and innovation in language education. Sara Cushing Weigle is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and ESL at Georgia State University, where she teaches courses in assess- ment, second language teacher development, and linguistics. She is the author of Assessing Writing (2002). Introduction Keith Johnson There is a sense in which almost any statement about language, language learning or language teaching may be said to hold implica- tions for a view about language learning or teaching expertise. Thus an observation about the nature of language implies a view about what it is that an expert user of the language is able to do. Similarly, a state- ment about language learning is interpretable