View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by LSE Theses Online The London School of Economics and Political Science Hegemony, Transformism and Anti-Politics: Community-Driven Development Programmes at the World Bank Emmanuelle Poncin A thesis submitted to the Department of Government of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. London, June 2012. 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 99,559 words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Patrick Murphy and Madeleine Poncin. 2 Abstract This thesis scrutinises the emergence, expansion, operations and effects of community-driven development (CDD) programmes, referring to the most popular and ambitious form of local, participatory development promoted by the World Bank. On the one hand, this thesis draws on the writings of Antonio Gramsci to explore new ways of contextualising and understanding CDD programmes along the lines of hegemony and transformism, as promoting social stability and demobilising counter-hegemonic challenges under conditions of democratisation and decentralisation, in support of economic liberalisation. On the other hand, it scrutinises the performative operations of CDD discourse in producing, legitimising and reproducing interventions, along the lines of "anti-politics," inspired by the Foucauldian approaches of James Ferguson and Tania Li. It also examines the performances elicited by CDD discourse, which "hails" politicians as "progressive" leaders, and "interpellates" the population as an "empowered" and "civil" society. Focusing on "Kalahi," the "flagship" CDD programme of the World Bank in the Philippines, in the "showcase" Province of Bohol, this research also reveals that CDD interventions, ostensibly designed to promote popular participation in local governance, have in practice worked to shore up the position of entrenched local machine politicians, and to undermine local peasant and fishermen's organisations mobilised to demand implementation of agrarian reform and legislation restricting large-scale fishing. Kalahi, the thesis further shows, was from the outset also intertwined with the expansion of agro-business and tourism ventures in the province, and with counterinsurgency operations. In parallel, Kalahi discourse has promoted new discursive styles of leadership, which have enabled local politicians to enhance their political clout and to reinforce their popular support base, whilst practices and institutions have remained essentially unchanged. Overall, this thesis thus shows that CDD programmes have worked to shore up hegemony in rural localities throughout the Philippines, and elsewhere across the developing world. 3 Contents List of Figures and Tables.......................................................................................................7 Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................8 List of Acronyms......................................................................................................................9 Chapter 1 – Introduction ......................................................................................................11 A New Paradigm in Local Development .............................................................................11 CDD as Instrument of “Good Governance”: The Liberal Communitarian View................14 Empirical Record .................................................................................................................17 “Social Capital” and “Empowerment,” Revisited................................................................21 Anti-Politics Machine ..........................................................................................................27 Hegemony and Transformism..............................................................................................33 A Material-Discursive Analytical Framework of CDD Programmes..................................39 Methodology and Data Sources ...........................................................................................45 Research Design and Methodology .................................................................................45 Scope and Limitations......................................................................................................49 Sources.............................................................................................................................52 Thesis Overview...................................................................................................................54 Chapter 2 – The Emergence and Rise of CDD Programmes Worldwide.........................56 Free Market and Oligarchical Democracies in the 1980s ....................................................59 Bringing the State back in: “Good Governance” in the early 1990s....................................65 The Emergence of CDD Programmes: The Cases of Brazil and Mexico............................72 Mexico..............................................................................................................................72 Brazil................................................................................................................................78 Bringing Society Back in: “Civil Society” and “Empowerment” at the Bank ....................84 The Evolution and Expansion of CDD Programmes: Indonesia’s KDP and Beyond .........92 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................103 Chapter 3 – Kalahi in Philippine Oligarchical Democracy .............................................108 Oligarchical Democracy.....................................................................................................117 Crises and Transformist Responses ...................................................................................120 People Power II..................................................................................................................127 The Emergence of Kalahi and the 2004 Elections .............................................................131 The Kalahi Vision ..............................................................................................................136 Expansion...........................................................................................................................141 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................143 Chapter 4 – Bohol as Arena for Kalahi Intervention.......................................................148 4 Spanish Colonial Rule (1521-1898)...................................................................................153 American Colonial Era (1898-1946)..................................................................................156 Post-Independence Commercialisation of the Economy ...................................................161 Going Global......................................................................................................................166 Tourism ..........................................................................................................................168 Agriculture .....................................................................................................................171 Local Growth Coalition......................................................................................................174 Contestation, Containment and Counterinsurgency...........................................................178 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................184 Chapter 5 – The “Enabled” Environment.........................................................................188 Kalahi Operations in Bohol: An Overview........................................................................194 The Rise of “Progressive” Leaders in the 1990s................................................................203 The Aumentado Provincial Administration, 2001-2010....................................................206 Electoral Domination and Development............................................................................213 Performing Kalahi in Bohol’s Municipalities....................................................................216 Counterinsurgency-led Development.................................................................................224 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................230