‘BAD GYPSIES’ AND ‘GOOD ROMA’: CONSTRUCTING ETHNIC AND POLITICAL IDENTITIES THROUGH EDUCATION IN RUSSIA AND HUNGARY by JEKATYERINA DUNAJEVA A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Political Science and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2014 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Jekatyerina Dunajeva Title: ‘Bad Gypsies’ and ‘Good Roma’: Constructing Ethnic and Political Identities through Education in Russia and Hungary This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Political Science by: Craig Parsons Chairperson Dennis Galvan Core Member Karrie Koesel Core Member Tuong Vu Core Member Carol Silverman Institutional Representative and J. Andrew Berglund Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded September 2014 ii © 2014 Jekatyerina Dunajeva iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Jekatyerina Dunajeva Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science September 2014 Title: ‘Bad Gypsies’ and ‘Good Roma’: Constructing Ethnic and Political Identities through Education in Russia and Hungary This dissertation seeks to unpack how the two dominant images—‘bad Gypsies’ and ‘good Roma’—developed and are mobilized in formal and informal educational institutions in Hungary and Russia and how those are perceived by Roma/Gypsies themselves. The former ethnic category has evolved over centuries, since Gypsies were increasingly defined as the quintessential ‘Other’, associated with resistance to authority, criminality, lack of education and discipline, and backwardness. The latter image has been advanced over the last few decades to counter negative stereotypes latent in the ‘Gypsy’ label. Various non-state actors are promoting a new image, that of proud, empowered, and educated ‘good Roma’. Mobilization of both images is distinctly recognizable in schools—it is in formal and informal educational institutions where the ‘bad Gypsy’ image is most visibly sustained and reproduced, while these sites are also supposed to be indisputable tools of empowerment and positive identity building. Relying on approximately 12 months of fieldwork in Hungary and Russia, the study pursues three goals. First, it examines the origins, institutionalization, and deployment of ethnic labels used to categorize Roma. I show that two images, ‘bad Gypsies’ and ‘good Roma that are contradictory in content, were reified and iv essentialized. Second, it investigates the mechanisms of imbuing Roma youth with normative values of these ethnic labels in formal and informal educational institutions through school instructions, curricular and extra-curricular activities, disciplinary practices, and discourse. Third, it assesses Roma response and techniques of coping to the given essentialized images about their group identity. Overall, the dissertation is composed of two sections: a historical and contemporary examination of Roma identity formation and ethnic labeling practices. I interrogate issues of nationhood, belonging, and identity politics surrounding the Roma minority by in depth study of identity formation and construction of exclusionary nationhood in Russia and Hungary. Any attempt to understand contemporary European political, economic, and social conditions cannot ignore the Roma, an issue that requires an urgent sustainable solution. Improving Roma living conditions and elimination of prejudice against Roma requires a holistic approach and a comprehensive understanding, which is the ambition that this study pursues. v CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Jekatyerina Dunajeva GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene, OR Saint Cloud State University, Saint Cloud, MN DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, Political Science, 2014, University of Oregon Master of Arts, Political Science, 2012, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts (summa cum laude), International Relations, 2009, Saint Cloud State University AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Eastern European Politics Education Policies Minority and Identity Politics Roma/Gypsies Youth Empowerment PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Instructor, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA, Spring 2014 Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA, 2009-2012 Visiting Researcher and Guest Lecturer, Corvinus University, Budapest, Hungary, 2012-2013 Advisory Board Member at the Open Society Foundation’s Youth Initiative (OSFYI), 2012-2014 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Early Career Researchers Award from Scientific Committee of the European Academic Network on Romani Studies, 2013, 2014 IREX-IARO (Individual Advanced Research Opportunities, US Title VIII) grant for conducting fieldwork, 2012/13 The Oregon University System Sasakawa Young Leaders Fellowship Fund (Sylff) Graduate Fellowships for International Research for conducting fieldwork, 2012/13 vi William C. Mitchell Summer Research Award, 2012 PUBLICATIONS: Dunajeva, Katya: Book Review: Alastair Bonnett’s Anti-Racism in Romológia/Romology, Pécs University; Spring/Summer issue, 2014. Dunajeva, Kátya: „Töprengés egy kisvárosi iskola cigány diákjainak táborozásakor” (Some thoughts from a summer camp for Roma children) in Új Pedagógiai Szemle 5-6, 2013 November (New Pedagogical Review), pp. 80-90. Dunajeva, Katya: “The Role of Schools in Roma/Gypsy Identity Formation in Russia and Hungary” (Research Brief) IREX Policy Brief, September 3, 2013 (http://www.irex.org/resource/role-schools-romagypsy-identity-formation-russia- and-hungary-research-brief). Dunajeva, Kátya: „Cigányokról, romákról, személyesen” (About Gypsies and Roma, from Personal Perspective) in Köznevelés (Public Education), January 2, 2013. vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Fieldwork and consecutive dissertation writing have been the most defining periods of my life. I met the most fascinating people, faced arduous circumstances, witnessed injustice, learned about the most creative coping mechanisms, became member of families that remain dear to me, and had a chance to share joy and sorrow with many genuine and wonderful people while in the field. The resulting life lessons are the most cherished and valuable sets of experience I have ever gained. The very process of understanding people’s lives embedded in different culture and living conditions made me understand my own personality in the most profound way. In Hungary, Andrew Ryder’s advice and guidance was very valuable. Conversations and collaborative site visits in Hungary enriched my worldview and understanding of Roma issues, and I am thankful to my colleagues and dear friends, Heather Tidrick and Mátyás Arató. While conducting fieldwork, I developed close ties to families, to whom I am grateful for sharing their stories and homes with me. Eszter and Rita’s family will always occupy a very special place in my heart. My committee members were also an irreplaceable source of support while conducting fieldwork. Carol Silverman’s expertise on Roma research, understanding of emotional and psychological hardships involved, and unlimited openness to listen and give advice was at times life saving. Karrie Koesel’s advise and empathy regarding difficulties associated with doing research in Russia was also instrumental in carrying on research, even during dark winter days in Russia. Dennis Galvan’s expertise studying other cultures, guidance about ethical and sensitive approach to such inquiry, and receptiveness to my still developing thoughts has always stimulated more fruitful viii directions for my research. Tuong Vu’s instructive reading and insightful critique of dissertation chapters helped me improve and clarify arguments. Finally, my chair, Craig Parsons’ guidance, timely feedback, and compassion during fieldwork and write-up process have provided the absolutely needed comfort and inspiration to complete my dissertation. I am grateful to all of them. This research was supported in part by a fellowship from the International Research & Exchanges Board, with funds provided by the United States Department of State through the Title VIII Program, and by a Sasakawa Young Leaders Fellowship Fund Graduate Fellowship for International Research. Neither of these organizations are responsible for the views expressed herein. Academic success is inseparable from personal relationships, which were absolutely critical to persevere during field research, achieve goals, and at times even supersede my own expectations. The list of such people is inexhaustible, but a few should be named. Katalin Bányai in Hungary and Elizabeth Holmbeck in the US are some of the closest friends, who have always been open and interested in listening, showed empathy, support, and encouragement regardless what direction my research or life took. I am immeasurably appreciative of their encouragement. Last but not least, the most inspirational people for me have always been my family. I learned to value joy as much as hardship and difficulties, finding challenges, rewards, and even times of neglect equally constructive for my personality, stamina, optimism, and sense of fairness, which were absolutely necessary to embark on, go through, and finish my doctorate degree. I am immensely grateful for this to my mother, father, sister, brother, and Jay Yeo, to whom I am dedicating this dissertation. ix Dedicated to those who inspired me with their wisdom, creativity, and opinions, teaching me the value