ENGINEERING SHANGHAI: WATER, SEWAGE, AND THE MAKING OF HYDRAULIC MODERNITY A Dissertation Presented to The Academic Faculty by Xincheng Shen In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree PhD in the SCHOOL OF HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY Georgia Institute of Technology MAY 2019 COPYRIGHT © 2019 BY XINCHENG SHEN ENGINEERING SHANGHAI: WATER, SEWAGE, AND THE MAKING OF HYDRAULIC MODERNITY Approved by: Dr. Hanchao Lu, Advisor Dr. Joe Brown School of History and Sociology School of Civil and Environmental Georgia Institute of Technology Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. John Krige Dr. John Tone School of History and Sociology School of History and Sociology Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Laura Bier School of History and Sociology Georgia Institute of Technology Date Approved: [March 11, 2019] In Memory of My Grandparents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The origin of this research is a myth. As far as I recall, I came up with this idea of studying city water infrastructures as a midway to combine my archaeology background and the new pursuit of STS and urban history. But my father insists that he is the one who crafted the theme in one of our many conversations. Either way, I owe a great deal to my parents, whose integrity, compassion, patriotism, and thirst for knowledge never cease to amaze me. Living up to their expectation is not easy. With this dissertation completed I hope I am half way there. Six years ago, I decided to come to Georgia Tech for my PhD study. It turned out to be one of the best decisions I have ever made. I am most fortunate to study under Hanchao Lu, whose speak-only-when-you-have-the-material philosophy put this research on a solid ground. Dr. Lu never said no to my wildest ideas, yet he somehow effortlessly imparted his down-to-earth view of scholarship. Looking back, it almost seems magical. I enjoy great mentorship from John Krige, Laura Bier, Joe Brown, John Tone and many others inside and outside HSOC who took interest in my research and sit through hours when I rambled on about my disorganized thoughts. To this I am most appreciative. I am equally grateful for the friendship I had with my fellow graduate students, whose wisdom and companionship made long hour enjoyable and turned hardship into delight. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv Table of Contents v LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xi SUMMARY xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Literature Review 2 1.2 Pitfalls in Defining Modernity 6 1.3 Problems with Hygienic Modernity 14 1.4 Hydraulic Modernity 19 1.5 Source Materials 24 1.6 Chapters 26 CHAPTER 2. DRAINAGE 31 2.1 Geography of Shanghai 33 2.2 No Drainage in the “Model Settlement” 38 2.3 Shanghai’s Drainage Problem 40 2.4 Technical Challenges of Building Drains 44 2.5 John Clark and the Scheme of Arterial System 49 2.6 E. H. Oliver and the Scheme of Reservoir 53 2.7 General Scheme of Drainage 58 2.8 Drains for Chinese Properties 62 2.9 Death of E. H. Oliver 66 2.10 Conclusion: Expertise 68 CHAPTER 3. WATERWORKS 71 3.1 British’s Shanghai Fire Brigade 74 3.2 Shanghai’s Fire Problem 77 3.3 Firewell and Its Problems 81 3.4 Fire Premium Remained High 82 3.5 Finding the Right Scheme 86 3.6 Municipal Scheme Failed 89 3.7 Creation of the Shanghai Waterworks Company 95 3.8 Building the Water Supply 101 3.9 The Opening of Shanghai Waterworks 107 3.10 Conclusion: Globalization 111 v CHAPTER 4. CULVERT 115 4.1 Shanties of the Yangkingpang 118 4.2 First Attempt for Culverting, 1866 122 4.3 More Water, Less Nightsoil 125 4.4 Another Attempt for Culverting 128 4.5 Fear of Sewer Gas 132 4.6 Political Obstructions 139 4.7 Need for a Boulevard 142 4.8 The French System in Question 145 4.9 Plural Vote 149 4.10 Last Voice against Culverting 152 4.11 Culverting the Creeks 154 4.12 Conclusion: Reflexivity 159 CHAPTER 5. SEWAGE 163 5.1 Regulating Nightsoil 165 5.2 A Flawed Municipal System 170 5.3 Towards a Real Municipal System 173 5.4 Banning Water Closets 176 5.5 Lifting the Ban on Water Closet 182 5.6 Dealing with Toilet Discharge 188 5.7 Help from Outside: The Fowler’s Report 192 5.8 The Creation of Water-Carriage System 196 5.9 Conclusion: Expert Systems 201 CHAPTER 6. MUNICIPALITY 205 6.1 Selling Water to the Chinese 208 6.2 Promoting Water Supply by the Municipal Council 212 6.3 Relocating the Company to Shanghai 217 6.4 Endeavors to Acquire the Waterworks, 1888 and 1891 220 6.5 Publicness of Water Issue 226 6.6 Specialization of Health Officer 231 6.7 Arthur Stanley and Modernization of Public Health 235 6.8 Final Attempt on the Municipal Water Supply, 1922-1928 239 6.9 Conclusion: Trust 244 CHAPTER 7. POLITICS 247 7.1 The Inland Waterworks Company 249 7.2 Creation of the Chapei Waterworks 254 7.3 When Pipes Met 258 7.4 Ownership of the Chapei Company: From Private to Public 265 7.5 Ownership of the Chapei Company: From Public to Private 268 7.6 Rise of Nationalism 274 7.7 Battle against the Surcharge, 1930-1931 282 7.8 The Hill Report and the Controversial Meter System 289 7.9 Shanghai Western Waterworks Company: A Joint Venture 297 7.10 Conclusion: Nation-State 301 vi CHAPTER 8. CHANGE 305 8.1 Cholera Outbreaks in Shanghai 308 8.2 Chapei Waterworks Scandal, 1926 311 8.3 Government Intervention 316 8.4 Anti-cholera Campaign and Central Cholera Bureau, 1932 319 8.5 Free Water Supply to the Poor Chinese 323 8.6 New Life Movement 329 8.7 Water Closet Revolution 335 8.7.1 Restroom as Social Space 337 8.7.2 Restroom, Toilet, and Gender 340 8.7.3 Government’s Overreach in the Restroom 343 8.7.4 Toilet as the Symbol of Modernity 347 8.8 Conclusion: Reskilling in Everyday Life 350 CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION 355 9.1 Modernity Revisited 358 9.2 Hydraulic Modernity Revisited 362 9.2.1 Capacity 364 9.2.2 Homogeneity 367 9.3 Beyond the Reach of State 371 9.4 Conclusion: Modernity as a Western Project 374 REFERENCES 378 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 – Morbidity and Mortality Rate in all settlements in Shanghai. ........................ 328 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 – Map of Shanghai.............................................................................................. 36 Figure 2 – Drainage Scheme in Shanghai by the 1870s ................................................... 62 Figure 3 – Details of Laidlaw and Sons Co.’s scheme ..................................................... 92 Figure 4 – Engine Room 1 at the Yangtszepoo waterworks ........................................... 102 Figure 5 – Chinese coolies laying water pipes. ............................................................... 104 Figure 6 – Water Tower .................................................................................................. 110 Figure 7 – Defence Creek and the Yangkingpang. ......................................................... 117 Figure 8 – Shanties on the bund of a river. ..................................................................... 119 Figure 9 – The busy entrance of the Yangkingpang. ...................................................... 127 Figure 10 – Yangkingpang.............................................................................................. 132 Figure 11 – Shone System .............................................................................................. 148 Figure 12 – Long bar at the Shanghai Club .................................................................... 181 Figure 13 – Structure of the Imhoff Tank ....................................................................... 183 Figure 14 – The estimated total expenditure of the sewer system. ................................. 199 Figure 15 – Diorama of a hot water shop ....................................................................... 207 Figure 16 – Illustration of the working of water supply ................................................. 212 Figure 17 – Illustration of water fountain for Chinese ................................................... 217 Figure 18 – Laboratory of the Shanghai Waterworks Company .................................... 227 Figure 19 – Illustration of the Inland Waterworks Company. ........................................ 253 Figure 20 – Chapei district and its position in relation to the International Settlement. 255 Figure 21 – Beggar boats on the Suzhou Creek .............................................................. 312 ix Figure 22 – The Palace Hotel.......................................................................................... 336 Figure 23 – Secrets in the restroom ................................................................................ 339 Figure 24 – Java Latrine ................................................................................................. 346 Figure 25 – Design for Public Restroom in Nanchang (1) ............................................. 346 Figure 26 – Design for Public Restroom in Nanchang (2) ............................................. 347 Figure 27 – Design for Public Restroom in Nanchang (3) ............................................. 347 Figure 28 – Promiscuous defecation during the Republic .............................................. 372 Figure 29 – The opening of water tower. ........................................................................ 373 x LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS Tls. Tael, weight unit for silver ingot currency used in imperial China, 1 Tael = 1.3 ounce of silver £ Pound Sterling, in the late nineteenth century £1 ≈ Tls. 4 $ The British dollar, issued from a mint in Hong Kong from 1866 to 1868. The value of dollar