A Grammar of Gyeli Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor philosophiae (Dr. phil.) eingereicht an der Kultur-, Sozial- und Bildungswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin von M.A. Nadine Grimm, geb. Borchardt geboren am 28.01.1982 in Rheda-Wiedenbrück Präsident der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Prof. Dr. Jan-Hendrik Olbertz Dekanin der Kultur-, Sozial- und Bildungswissenschaftlichen Fakultät Prof. Dr. Julia von Blumenthal Gutachter: 1. 2. Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: Table of Contents List of Tables xi List of Figures xii Abbreviations xiii Acknowledgments xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Gyeli Language . 1 1.1.1 The Language’s Name . 2 1.1.2 Classification . 4 1.1.3 Language Contact . 9 1.1.4 Dialects . 14 1.1.5 Language Endangerment . 16 1.1.6 Special Features of Gyeli . 18 1.1.7 Previous Literature . 19 1.2 The Gyeli Speakers . 21 1.2.1 Environment . 21 1.2.2 Subsistence and Culture . 23 1.3 Methodology . 26 1.3.1 The Project . 27 1.3.2 The Construction of a Speech Community . 27 1.3.3 Data . 28 1.4 Structure of the Grammar . 30 2 Phonology 32 2.1 Consonants . 33 2.1.1 Phonemic Inventory . 34 i Nadine Grimm A Grammar of Gyeli 2.1.2 Realization Rules . 42 2.1.2.1 Labial Velars . 43 2.1.2.2 Allophones . 44 2.1.2.3 Pre-glottalization of Labial and Alveolar Stops and the Issue of Implosives . 47 2.1.2.4 Voicing and Devoicing of Stops . 51 2.1.3 Consonant Clusters . 55 2.1.3.1 Prenasalization . 55 2.1.3.2 Labialization and Palatalization . 59 2.1.3.3 Consonant-Fricative Clusters . 62 2.1.4 Phonotactics . 64 2.2 Vowels . 68 2.2.1 Plain Vowels . 69 2.2.2 Diphthongs . 75 2.2.3 Vowel Length . 77 2.2.4 Nasal Vowels . 80 2.3 Syllable Structure . 82 2.3.1 Introduction . 82 2.3.2 Syllable Internal Structure . 85 2.3.3 Syllable Distribution . 88 2.3.3.1 Syllables in Nominal Prefixes . 89 2.3.3.2 Syllables in SCOPs . 89 2.3.3.3 Syllables in Noun Stems . 89 2.3.3.4 Syllables in Verb Stems . 92 2.4 Tonology . 94 2.4.1 Tonal Inventory . 95 2.4.1.1 Level Tones . 95 2.4.1.2 Contour Tones . 98 2.4.1.3 Toneless Syllables . 99 2.4.2 Tone Rules . 101 2.4.2.1 High Tone Spreading To The Right . 102 2.4.2.2 High Tone Spreading To The Left . 104 2.4.2.3 L Tone Detachment in Monosyllabic L Verb Stems . 106 2.4.2.4 H Tone Lowering in Monosyllabic H Verb Stems . 107 ii Nadine Grimm A Grammar of Gyeli 2.5 Discussion: Gyeli Phonology within Bantu A80 . 108 3 The Noun Phrase 112 3.1 Introduction . 112 3.2 The Gender and Agreement System . 114 3.2.1 Agreement Classes . 116 3.2.2 Noun Classes . 119 3.2.3 The Gyeli Gender System . 124 3.2.3.1 Gender 1/2 . 128 3.2.3.2 Gender 3/4 . 129 3.2.3.3 Gender 5/6 . 131 3.2.3.4 Gender 7/8 . 133 3.2.3.5 Gender 9/6 . 135 3.2.3.6 Gender 6 . 137 3.2.4 Inquorate Genders . 137 3.3 The Noun . 141 3.3.1 Mass Nouns and Countability . 144 3.3.2 Nominalization . 146 3.3.2.1 Agentive Nominalization of Gender 1/2 . 146 3.3.2.2 Event Nouns of Class 6 . 148 3.4 Agreement Targets of the Noun . 148 3.4.1 Subject Pronouns . 149 3.4.2 Non-Subject Pronouns . 149 3.4.3 Interrogative Pronouns . 150 3.4.4 Demonstratives . 152 3.4.5 Possessor Pronouns . 153 3.4.6 Attributive Markers . 156 3.4.7 Genitive Markers . 157 3.4.8 Agreeing Quantifiers . 159 3.4.8.1 Agreeing Numerals . 159 3.4.8.2 Non-Numeral Quantifier -ɛ́sɛ̀ ‘all’ . 161 3.4.9 Deictic Modifiers . 162 3.5 Invariable Modifiers in the Noun Phrase . .165 3.5.1 Qualifiers . 166 3.5.2 Invariable Numerals . 169 3.5.2.1 Enumeratives . 169 iii Nadine Grimm A Grammar of Gyeli 3.5.3 Invariable Quantifiers . 176 3.5.3.1 Prenominal Invariable Quantifiers . 176 3.5.3.2 Postnominal Invariable Quantifiers . 176 3.5.4 Locative Adpositions . 178 3.5.4.1 Prenominal ɛ́ . 179 3.5.4.2 Postnominal dé . 179 3.5.4.3 Other Locative Postpositions . 180 3.6 Distributive Constructions . 180 3.6.1 Distributive Construction with náà . 180 3.6.2 Distributive Numerals . 181 3.7 Attributive Constructions . 183 3.7.1 Noun + Noun . 184 3.7.1.1 Optional Omission of the Attributive Marker 184 3.7.1.2 Nominal Possessives . 191 3.7.1.3 Properties . 193 3.7.1.4 Nominal Quantifiers . 194 3.7.1.5 Nominal Locatives . 203 3.7.2 Noun + Qualifier . 205 3.7.3 Noun + Verb . 206 3.7.4 Noun + Interrogative . 206 3.7.4.1 vɛ́ ‘which’ . 206 3.7.4.2 níyɛ̀ ‘how many’ . 208 3.7.4.3 púù ‘cause’ . 208 3.7.5 Noun + Numeral: Ordinal Numerals . 210 4 The Verb Phrase 213 4.1 The Verb . 213 4.1.1 Verb Structure . 215 4.1.2 Verbal Derivation . 218 4.1.2.1 Reciprocal -ala . 222 4.1.2.2 Passive -a . 222 4.1.2.3 Causative -ɛsɛ . 226 4.1.2.4 Applicative -ɛlɛ . 228 4.1.2.5 Autocausative Middle Voice -ɛga/-aga . 230 4.1.2.6 Positional Middle Voice -ɔwɔ . 232 4.1.2.7 Expansions . 235 iv Nadine Grimm A Grammar of Gyeli 4.2 Adverbs . 237 4.2.1 Group 1 Adverbs: Deictic . 239 4.2.2 Group 2 Adverbs: Temporal . 245 4.2.3 Group 3 Adverbs: Manner . 247 4.2.4 Group 4 Adverbs: Locative/directional . 248 4.2.5 Group 5 Adverbs: Anaphoric . 251 4.2.6 Discussion: Multiple Adverbs . 252 4.3 Ideophones . 252 4.3.1 Phonological Shape of Ideophones . 253 4.3.2 Morphosyntactic Properties of Ideophones . 256 5 Tense, Aspect, Mood and Negation 260 5.1 Introduction . 260 5.2 Grammatical Expression of Tense and Mood . 262 5.2.1 Patterns of the SCOP . 264 5.2.1.1 SCOP Assimilation . 267 5.2.1.2 SCOP Omission . 268 5.2.2 Patterns of the Verb Stem . 273 5.2.3 The Metatonic H Tone . 276 5.2.4 Tense-Mood Categories . 282 5.2.4.1 Present . 283 5.2.4.2 Inchoative . 285 5.2.4.3 Future . 287 5.2.4.4 Recent Past (PST1) . 288 5.2.4.5 Remote Past (PST2) . 290 5.2.4.6 Imperative . 292 5.2.4.7 Subjunctive . 296 5.3 Aspectual Markers . 299 5.3.1 Progressive nzíí, nzí, and nzɛ́ɛ́ . 311 5.3.2 Priorative pã̂ ‘first’ . 315 5.3.3 Prospective múà . 316 5.3.4 Retrospective lɔ́ ‘come’ . 317 5.3.5 Perfect bwàà ‘have’ . 319 5.3.6 Absolute Completive -mɔ̀/-Ṽ . 321 5.3.7 Non-Complete Accomplishment sílɛ̀ ‘finish’ . 324 5.3.8 Habitual by Verb Reduplication . 327 v Nadine Grimm A Grammar of Gyeli 5.4 Negation . 327 5.4.1 Negation with -lɛ in the present . 329 5.4.2 Negation with sàlɛ́/pálɛ́.