NEGOTIATING THE BORDERS OF EMPIRE: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF ACCESS ON KWAJALEIN ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS by SANDRA CRISMON (Under the Direction of J. Peter Brosius) ABSTRACT Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands, is the site of a U.S. Army missile testing base, where colonial relationships between Americans and Marshallese were examined through the analysis of physical, regulatory, cultural and discursive borders on the atoll. Ethnographic attention was focused on both local Marshallese and on American contract workers in this border situation. Findings include significant ambivalence and tensions among Americans, especially between military and civilian actors, regarding the U.S. colonial project on Kwajalein. In addition to Marshallese resistance to the military order, some American residents also resist the physical and regulatory borders that structure their everyday lives. It also becomes evident that discursive constructions of borders and relationships on the atoll have served to obscure other inequalities, and simplify a complex atoll history. Borders emerge as key sites at which to examine the tensions and power dynamics of colonial relationships. INDEX WORDS: borders/border theory, U.S. colonialism/militarism, studying up NEGOTIATING THE BORDERS OF EMPIRE: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF ACCESS ON KWAJALEIN ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS by SANDRA CRISMON B.A., University of Iowa, 1991 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2005 © 2005 Sandra Crismon All Rights Reserved NEGOTIATING THE BORDERS OF EMPIRE: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF ACCESS ON KWAJALEIN ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS by SANDRA CRISMON Major Professor: J. Peter Brosius Committee: Alexandra Brewis Paul Sutter Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia December 2005 DEDICATION For my family, and Greg Sammer (CMI-Gugeegue) iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All my gratitude to those on Kwajalein Atoll who contributed to this research, and the many others who helped it along. Special thanks to the College of the Marshall Islands and the Host Nation Office. At UGA, all my thanks to Margie Floyd, the miracle worker. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 Theoretical Framework & Applications....................................................................2 Research Questions .................................................................................................19 The Field Site ..........................................................................................................20 Methods...................................................................................................................22 Positionality of the Researcher................................................................................26 Chapter Outlines......................................................................................................33 2 THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS............................................................................35 Border Theory .........................................................................................................35 Anthropology of Colonialism..................................................................................67 “Studying Up” .........................................................................................................74 Anthropology of Militarism ....................................................................................92 3 MARSHALL ISLANDS BACKGROUND ..............................................................100 4 COLONIALISM, HISTORY & MISSILE TESTING ..............................................131 Pacific History & Strategic Use ............................................................................131 Common Themes in U.S. Colonialism..................................................................142 vi Colonialism & Imperialism - Definitions..............................................................148 U.S. Colonialism Debates – Outposts of Empire? ................................................156 Anthropology & Colonial Complicity...................................................................165 Marshall Islands History .......................................................................................170 Kwajalein Atoll History ........................................................................................203 5 KWAJALEIN ISLET, THE BASE............................................................................225 Kwajalein Past & Present......................................................................................229 Recreating 1950s America ....................................................................................243 Kwajalein Regulation............................................................................................250 The Clash of Cultures............................................................................................259 6 EBEYE ISLET...........................................................................................................286 Ebeye’s Postwar History .......................................................................................293 Recent Situation ....................................................................................................308 Whose Fault is Ebeye? ..........................................................................................314 7 KWAJALEIN ACCESS............................................................................................350 Access Regulations in a Larger Military Context .................................................356 History of Access ..................................................................................................363 Access Regulations & Badging System ................................................................376 Dock Security Checkpoint.....................................................................................379 Access Issues & Different Populations .................................................................384 Access to the Kwaj Hospital .................................................................................410 Dilemmas of Access..............................................................................................418 vii 8 FOOD & WATER ISSUES: ACCESS CASE STUDIES .........................................421 Kwaj Islet Food & Water Issues............................................................................422 Ebeye Islet Water & Food Issues ..........................................................................431 9 MOBILIZATIONS: MEDIA, RESISTANCE & U.S.-MARSHALLESE RELATIONS.........................................................................................................469 American Resistance .............................................................................................471 Local Media...........................................................................................................478 National & International Media ............................................................................480 Marshallese Demonstrations .................................................................................488 Spaces Created by Marshall Resistance ................................................................504 10 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................506 Main Findings........................................................................................................506 Contributions to Studies of Borders, Colonialism & Militarism...........................511 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................513 viii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: “God Also Bless Marshall Islands”..............................................................................198 Figure 2: Kwajalein Atoll map ....................................................................................................204 Figure 3: Water kiosk on Ebeye, 2002.........................................................................................440 Figure 4: Concertina wire at north end of Kwaj, 1982 ................................................................496 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Even macrohistorical processes – the building of states, the making of revolutions, the extension of global capitalism – have their feet on the ground. Being rooted in the meaningful practices of people, great and small, they are in short, suitable cases for anthropological treatment. Comaroff and Comaroff (1992:32-33) The research presented in this dissertation examines the nature of the colonial relationship between Americans and Marshallese on Kwajalein Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), the site of a U.S. Army missile testing base. The focus is on the material and discursive micropolitics of the “colonizer” – American residents of the missile testing base. These