Code-switching Between Structural and Sociolinguistic Perspectives linguae & litterae Publications of the School of Language & Literature Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies Edited by Peter Auer, Gesa von Essen and Frick Werner Editorial Board Michel Espagne (Paris), Marino Freschi (Rom), Ekkehard König (Berlin), Michael Lackner (Erlangen-Nürnberg), Per Linell (Linköping), Angelika Linke (Zürich), Christine Maillard (Strasbourg), Lorenza Mondada (Basel), Pieter Muysken (Nijmegen), Wolfgang Raible (Freiburg), Monika Schmitz-Emans (Bochum) Volume 43 Code-switching Between Structural and Sociolinguistic Perspectives Edited by Gerald Stell and Kofi Yakpo DE GRUYTER ISBN 978-3-11-034354-0 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-034687-9 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-038394-2 ISSN 1869-7054 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2015 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Munich/Boston Typesetting: Meta Systems Publishing & Printservices GmbH, Wustermark Printing and binding: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen ♾ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com Contents Acknowledgements VII Gerald Stell, Kofi Yakpo Elusive or self-evident? Looking for common ground in approaches to code-switching 1 Part 1: Code-switching between cognition and socio-pragmatics Ad Backus A usage-based approach to code-switching: The need for reconciling structure and function 19 Gerrit Jan Kootstra A psycholinguistic perspective on code-switching: Lexical, structural, and socio-interactive processes 39 Maria Carmen Parafita Couto, Margaret Deuchar, Marika Fusser How do Welsh-English bilinguals deal with conflict? Adjective-noun order resolution 65 Evershed Kwasi Amuzu Combining the Markedness Model and the Matrix Language Frame Model in Analysing Bilingual Speech 85 Part 2: Multilingual interaction and social identity Gerald Stell Towards an integrated approach to structural and conversational code-switching through macrosociolinguistic factors 117 Eric A. Anchimbe Code-switching: Between identity and exclusion 139 Katherine Hoi Ying Chen Styling bilinguals: Analyzing structurally distinctive code-switching styles in Hong Kong 163 VI Contents Bettina Migge The role of discursive information in analyzing multilingual practices 185 Adam Blaxter Paliwala Creole/Superstrate code-switching: Structure and consequences 207 Part 3: Code-switching and social structure Klaus Beyer Multilingual speakers in a West-African contact zone: An integrated approach to contact-induced language change 237 Kofi Yakpo Code-switching and social change: Convergent language mixing in a multilingual society 259 Carmel O’Shannessy Typological and social factors influencing a new mixed language, Light Warlpiri 289 Sabine Ehrhart Continua of language contact 305 Index 317 Acknowledgements We are grateful for the financial and logistic support of the Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS) at the University of Freiburg (Germany) which afforded the two editors the opportunity to hold the workshop Code-switching at the crossroads between structural and sociolinguistic perspectives during a fellowship in 2012, where the idea for the present volume was conceived. We are particularly indebted to Peter Auer, at the time director of FRIAS, as well as his staff who made the workshop and the realization of this volume possible. A note of thanks also goes to the contributors to this volume who were exemplary in their collaboration with us editors, and for their timely delivery of revisions. We are also grateful to Pieter Muysken whose support via the “Traces of Contact” project of the Centre for Languages Studies of the Universi- ty of Nijmegen was crucial for the two editors. June 2014 Gerald Stell, Kingston Kofi Yakpo, Hong Kong Gerald Stell, University of the West Indies/University of Pretoria Kofi Yakpo, The University of Hong Kong Elusive or self-evident? Looking for common ground in approaches to code-switching 1 Social factors in the study of code-switching The study of code-switching has been undertaken from three distinct perspec- tives: linguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic. The linguistic perspective has been concerned with the search for universal grammatical constraints to code-switching. The psycholinguistic perspective has focused on how bilin- guals’ linguistic systems are stored and accessed in the cognitive system. Final- ly, the sociolinguistic perspective has paid attention to the social motivations behind code-switching. The methodologies employed in all three cases range from observation in naturalistic settings, more associated with the sociolin- guistic perspective, to experimental elicitation, more associated with the psy- cholinguistic perspective. The linguistic perspective, in turn, does not neces- sarily identify explicitly with any methodology for data extraction. A need for bringing together these three perspectives has been increasingly felt, giving rise to a few multidisciplinary overviews of code-switching studies, among which the most recent is an edited volume by Isurin et al. (2009). The present volume emphasizes commonalities of approaches to code- switching. Despite the theoretically and methodologically eclectic character of code-switching studies, it seems feasible to bring together various approaches to code-switching spanning all three perspectives as long as they meet the cri- terion of allowing for social explanations. This is the point of view that we took while editing this volume. This volume also seeks to widen the empirical basis of the study of code-switching by including a richly diverse range of contact settings encompassing countries such as Cameroon, Hong Kong, Suriname, Burkina Faso, Dutch Antilles, French Guiana, Netherlands, Papua New Guinea, United Kingdom, South Africa, Luxembourg and Australia, and using primary data from languages representing a broad variety of linguistic types and affilia- tions (Niger-Congo, Sinitic, Germanic, Indic, Austronesian, Pama-Nyungan, Celtic, as well as Afro-Caribbean and Pacific English-lexifier Creoles and Mixed Languages). Capturing a phenomenon as old as bilingualism itself, the term code- switching was originally coined by Vogt (1954) in his review of Weinreich’s 2 Gerald Stell, Kofi Yakpo seminal work Language in Contact (1953). However, it is only from the 1970s onwards that code-switching began to receive sustained attention as an inde- pendent topic of study. As such, it has been the subject of a variety of scholarly perspectives, rooted in different theoretical outlooks, relying on different meth- odologies, and pursuing different goals. Against this eclectic background, it should be little wonder that code-switching has been given quite a few dis- tinct – not to say contradictory – definitions. To complicate matters, it has been regularly set off against another concept, namely code-mixing – which again has been given very different definitions. For example, whereas in Muys- ken’s view code-switching refers to ‘the rapid succession of several languages in a single speech event’, code-mixing refers to ‘all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence’ (Muys- ken 2000: 1). By contrast, Bentahila and Davies (1983: 302) defined code- switching as the outcome of ‘mixing (…) two codes together to produce some- thing which might itself be called a third code’. The notion of a code defined communicatively rather than structurally underlies conversational perspec- tives on code-switching, which propose a distinctive set of definitions for code- switching and code-mixing. In the perspective taken by Auer (1998, 1999), ‘code-mixing’ (or ‘language mixing’) is opposed to ‘code-switching’ (or ‘lan- guage alternation’) on the ground of the degrees of pragmatic salience of struc- tural switch points. Whereas the pragmatic salience of structural switch points is relatively low in code-mixing/language mixing − to the point that structural- ly distinguishable codes are not communicatively distinguishable, it is con- versely relatively high in code-switching/language alternation, whereby speak- ers show awareness of alternating between two structurally distinguishable codes. As a whole, this present volume deals with code-switching as conceived of in the broadest terms. Hence we use ‘code-switching’ as a generic term tran- scending the occasionally perceived opposition between code-switching and code-mixing, while potentially subsuming all definitions, both grammatical and conversational, that code-switching and code-mixing have been given. This implies that we provisionally subsume in the term ‘code-switching’ both the communicative and structural definitions of ‘code’, leaving it to individual authors in this volume to specify which of the two definitions is applicable within the framework of their respective contributions. Giving centre stage to the social dimension of code-switching perhaps does justice to its historical beginnings as a topic of systematic study. Beyond Wein- reich, historical overviews of the study of code-switching usually locate these beginnings in the research undertaken by Blom and Gumperz (1972) on the social motivations behind code-switching, producing the first conversational Elusive