Can Language Be Planned? Can Language Be Planned? Contributors Contributors S. TAKDIR ALISJAHBANA JYOTIRINDRA DAS GUPTA JOSHUA A. FISHMAN CHARLES F. GALLAGHER MUHAMMAD ABDUL HAI EINAR HAUGEN BJÖRN H. JERNUDD HERBERT KELMAN JOHN MACNAMARA CHAIM RABIN JOAN RUBIN BONIFACIO P. SIBAYAN THOMAS THORBURN WILFRED H. WHITELEY ii Can Language Be Planned? Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice for Developing Nations EDITED BY JOAN RUBIN AND BJÖRN H. JERNUDD An East-West Center Book The University Press of Hawaii Open Access edition funded by the National En- dowment for the Humanities / Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities Open Book Program. Licensed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 In- ternational (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits readers to freely download and share the work in print or electronic format for non-commercial purposes, so long as credit is given to the author. Derivative works and commercial uses require per- mission from the publisher. For details, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. The Cre- ative Commons license described above does not apply to any material that is separately copyrighted. Open Access ISBNs: 9780824880705 (PDF) 9780824880712 (EPUB) This version created: 16 May, 2019 Please visit www.hawaiiopen.org for more Open Access works from University of Hawai‘i Press. Copyright © 1971 by The University Press of Hawaii All rights reserved CONTENTS CONTENTS Preface viii Introduction: Language Planning as an Element in Modernization Joan Rubin and Björn H. Jernudd xi THE MOTIVATION AND RATIONALIZATION FOR LANGUAGE POLICY 1 1. The Impact of Nationalism on Language Planning: Some Comparisons between Early Twentieth-Century Europe and More Recent Years in South and Southeast Asia Joshua A. Fishman 3 2. Language as an Aid and Barrier to Involvement in the National System Herbert C. Kelman 20 3. Religion, Language, and Political Mobilization Jyotirindra Das Gupta 51 CASE STUDIES OF LANGUAGE PLANNING 61 4. Successes and Failures in the Movement for the Restoration of Irish John Macnamara 63 5. Spelling Reform—Israel 1968 Chaim Rabin 91 6. Language-planning Processes and the Language-Policy Survey in the Philippines Bonifacio P. Sibayan 119 7. Some Factors Influencing Language Policies in Eastern Africa Wilfred H. Whiteley 136 vi CONTENTS 8. Language Reform and Social Modernization in Turkey Charles F. Gallagher 152 9. Some Planning Processes in the Development of the Indonesian-Malay Language S. Takdir Alisjahbana 170 10. The Development of Bengali Since the Establishment of Pakistan Muhammad Abdul Hai 179 A GENERAL APPROACH TO LANGUAGE PLANNING 183 11. Towards a Theory of Language Planning Björn H. Jernudd and Jyotirindra Das Gupta 185 12. Evaluation and Language Planning Joan Rubin 205 13. Cost-Benefit Analysis in Language Planning Thomas Thorburn 239 14. Notes on Economic Analysis for Solving Language Problems Björn H. Jernudd 249 15. A Tentative Classification of Language-planning Aims Chaim Rabin 264 16. Instrumentalism in Language Planning Einar Haugen 267 RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND A VIEW TOWARDS THE FUTURE 277 17. Research Outline for Comparative Studies of Language Planning Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Björn H. Jernudd, and Joan Rubin 279 18. A View towards the Future Joan Rubin 293 293 Some Introductory References Pertaining to Language Planning Björn H. Jernudd and Joan Rubin 297 About this Book 348 About the Author 349 vii PREFACE PREF ACE During the academic year 1968–69, four scholars, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Joshua Fishman, Björn Jernudd, and Joan Rubin, met together at the East-West Center, Institute of Advanced Projects, Hawaii, to consider what the nature of language planning might be, what problems it might be expected to solve, and how it might shed light on some of the problems that some social sci- ences have been trying to consider. The inspiration for, and funding and administration of, this year belongs to Joshua Fish- man. As one of the first sociolinguists, Dr. Fishman has in the past ten years succeeded in focusing attention on the impor- tance of this new field and in promoting scholarship into its many aspects. An earlier conference (Airlie House, Virginia, No- vember, 1966) organized by Charles Ferguson and Joshua Fishman considered language problems of developing nations; the year of research in Hawaii provided an opportunity to con- sider in depth some of the questions brought to light at this con- ference. One of the special features of the year in Hawaii was a four- day meeting on language-planning processes. At the meeting, held in Hawaii during April 7–10, 1969, some ten participants (Alisjahbana, Ferguson, Gallagher, Hai, Haugen, Kelman, Macnamara, Rabin, Sibayan, and Thorburn) were invited on the basis of their previous personal experience with, or study of, language planning and policy or on the basis of a disciplinary focus that might shed light on language planning in the future. Together the participants represented several academic disci- plines (anthropology, linguistics, sociolinguistics, political science, sociology, economics, economic planning, social psy- chology) and had knowledge about language policy and planning in several areas of the world (Indonesia, Philippines, Ireland, Kenya and Tanzania, Israel, Pakistan, and Turkey). Einar Haugen, one of the fathers of the study of language planning, viii PREFACE was unable to attend. However, the editors are extremely pleased that he agreed to submit a paper, which has been in- cluded in this volume. Unfortunately, Abdul Hai was ill at the time of the meeting and could not attend. His recent death is a loss to the field. The meeting proved highly successful as all the participants came away having seen language planning in a new light, having considered the potentialities of both the practical and theoretical products that language planning might offer and having had the pleasure of some highly stimulating discussions. The papers in this book represent a revised version of those presented to this meeting. The book itself represents only a be- ginning in what we feel must become a significant part of the field of sociolinguistics. Although the term language planning is to be found in the literature, this is the first time that a consider- ation of the potentialities and limitations of language planning as a sociolinguistic study and pursuit is taken up. It is also the first time that a multidisciplinary approach is brought to bear on the problems of language planning. All of these considera- tions are, of course, only a beginning; and our conclusions are only hypotheses to be used for further research. This book is intended to serve several purposes: to demon- strate the need for a multidisciplinary approach to language planning, to awaken the interest of all the social sciences to the role of language in modernization, to interest social sci- entists in the theoretical gain to be had from the study of language planning, to help widen the field of sociolinguistics by interesting linguists in people’s attempts to influence their own speech and the social and economic environment of delib- erate language change, and to encourage participant language planners to scrutinize the processes that occur as they proceed to make and carry out language decisions. It is also meant to serve as a stimulus to research in language planning. The year at the East-West Center for the above-mentioned four scholars was indeed only a beginning of their interest in language planning. Drs. Fishman and Ferguson have sought and obtained a three-year research grant from the Ford Foun- dation starting in September 1969 for the study of language- planning processes in four to five countries. Serving as country coordinators for this research will be Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Björn Jernudd, Joan Rubin, Joshua Fishman, and Charles Fer- guson. As of this writing, Joan Rubin was already working in Indonesia with the full cooperation, participation, and interest ix PREFACE of her Indonesian colleagues. Dr. Harsja Baktiar, dean of the Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Indonesia is serving as country di- rector of the study. Although this book rightly should have been edited by Joshua Fishman, he modestly declined in favor of the current editors in a generous gesture to further encourage their interest in the subject. We are both most indebted to Joshua for his support. Publication of this book and the year at the East-West Center would not have been possible without the grant that the Ford Foundation made for 1968–69. We wish to thank the Foundation for its continuous support and for its encouragement of our re- search and publication. We would also like to thank the East- West Center’s Institute of Advanced Projects for providing salaries, offices, and logistic support during our year in beautiful Hawaii. Finally, we would like to thank the editorial staff for its patience with us as we gathered the revised papers from literally all four corners of this round world (which from a postal point of view does not always seem to have gotten much smaller). January 2, 1970 Joan Rubin Stanford University Björn Jernudd Monash University x INTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE PLANNING AS AN ELEMENT IN MODERNIZATION JOAN RUBIN Department of Anthropology, Tulane University BJÖRN H. JERNUDD Department of Linguistics, Monash University INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE PLANNING AS PRACTICED TODAY The terms of reference defining the functions of Malaysia’s Lan- guage and Literature Agency are as follows: (1) to develop and enrich the national language; (2) to promote literary talents, es- pecially in the national language; (3) to print or publish or assist the printing or publication of books, magazines, pamphlets, and other forms of literature in the national language as well as in the other languages; (4) to standardize the spelling and pro- nunciation and to coin appropriate terminologies in the national language; and (5) to compile and publish a national language dictionary.