A Grammar of Agolle Kusaal Revised Version David Eddyshaw i Contents Preface...................................................................................................................... ix Preface to the Revised Version..................................................................................xi Introduction to the Grammar...................................................................................xii Other Studies of Kusaal...........................................................................................xiv Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... xvi Interlinear Glossing................................................................................................xvii Transcription Conventions......................................................................................xix Sources..................................................................................................................... xx References/Bibliography.........................................................................................xxi 1 Introduction to Kusaal and the Kusaasi.....................................................................1 1.1 The Kusaasi People.............................................................................................2 1.2 The Kusaal Language..........................................................................................4 1.2.1 Language Status..........................................................................................4 1.2.2 Dialects........................................................................................................5 1.2.3 Related Languages......................................................................................6 1.2.4 External Infuences....................................................................................15 1.3 Orthography......................................................................................................17 1.3.1 Written Materials.......................................................................................19 1.4 Outline of Kusaal Grammar..............................................................................23 Morphophonemics....................................................................................................... 38 2 Words, Morae and Syllables.....................................................................................38 2.1 Word Classes.....................................................................................................38 2.2 Apocope............................................................................................................ 38 2.2.1 Superscript Notation.................................................................................42 2.2.2 Predictability of Long Forms......................................................................45 2.3 Word Division....................................................................................................47 2.3.1 Compound Noun Phrases...........................................................................48 2.3.2 Liaison........................................................................................................49 2.4 Morae, Syllables and Stress..............................................................................53 2.5 Ordering of Morphophonemic Rules.................................................................54 3 Consonants............................................................................................................... 55 3.1 Inventory and Symbols.....................................................................................55 3.2 Consonant Clusters...........................................................................................60 4 Vowels...................................................................................................................... 63 4.1 Inventory and Symbols.....................................................................................63 4.1.1 Agolle Vowel Breaking...............................................................................64 4.2 Root Vowels.......................................................................................................66 4.2.1 Nasalisation...............................................................................................66 4.2.2 Glottalisation..............................................................................................67 4.2.3 Diphthongs.................................................................................................68 4.3 Epenthetic Vowels.............................................................................................71 4.4 Affix Vowels....................................................................................................... 72 ii 5 Tones........................................................................................................................ 74 5.1 Tonemes............................................................................................................74 5.2 Levelling within Syllables.................................................................................75 5.3 Realisation Rules...............................................................................................75 5.3.1 H Spreading...............................................................................................75 5.3.2 Downstepping before H.............................................................................79 6 Word Segmental Structure......................................................................................82 6.1 Roots, Prefxes and Suffixes..............................................................................82 6.1.1 Root Alternations.......................................................................................85 6.1.1.1 CVV~CV~CVC....................................................................................85 6.1.1.2 CVVC~CVC.........................................................................................91 6.1.1.3 Glottalisation before Derivational Suffixes.........................................92 6.2 Consonant Changes..........................................................................................93 6.2.1 Consonant Clusters and Epenthetic Vowels...............................................93 6.2.1.1 Consonant Changes in Derivation......................................................98 6.3 Vowel Changes................................................................................................101 6.3.1 Consonant Deletion and Vowel Fusion.....................................................101 6.3.2 Before *-ya *-gʋ *-kkʋ *-ŋŋʋ.....................................................................104 6.3.3 Length Constraints..................................................................................106 6.4 Apocope Blocking............................................................................................107 7 Word Tonal Structure.............................................................................................108 7.1 Tone Patterns..................................................................................................108 7.2 Nominals.........................................................................................................111 7.2.1 Pattern H..................................................................................................111 7.2.1.1 Tonal Effects of Deleted Morae.........................................................112 7.2.1.2 Subpattern HL..................................................................................113 7.2.2 Pattern L..................................................................................................114 7.2.3 Pattern O..................................................................................................115 7.2.4 Nominals with Prefxes............................................................................117 7.3 Verbs............................................................................................................... 118 7.3.1 Pattern H..................................................................................................119 7.3.2 Pattern LO................................................................................................120 7.3.3 Descriptive Verbs.....................................................................................122 7.4 Quantifers, Adverbs and Particles..................................................................122 7.5 Tone in Derivation...........................................................................................123 7.5.1 Tones of Deverbal Nominals....................................................................125 iii 8 External Sandhi......................................................................................................126 8.1 Prosodic Clitics...............................................................................................127 8.1.1 Presubject Long Forms............................................................................131 8.2 Liaison............................................................................................................. 132 8.2.1 Liaison Enclitics.......................................................................................132 8.2.1.1