Title Page Victim’s Perspectives’ Towards Rape, Sexual Violence and Abuse of Women during Internal Armed Conflicts in Nigerian Student Declaration I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution. I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work Mfoniso Katherine Ogunleye Signature of Candidate ______________________________________________________ Type of Award: Doctor of Philosophy School: Business, Arts, Humanities, & Social Science (BAHSS) ii Abstract This thesis examines victim’s perspectives on rape, sexual violence, and abuse of women during internal armed conflicts in Nigeria. This is achieved through a critical analysis of empirical interviews, analytical review of NGO statements, rapporteur reports on judicial response to conflict-related rape and abuses. As a critique of the Nigerian judicial responses, the research assesses and identifies discrepancies and practices with the aim of ideally resolving these through proposed policy and reforms. The originality of this research rests upon analysis of the empirical interviews of professionals and accounts given by victims to NGOs. This is cross-referenced with evaluation of past historical positions on conflict-related rape. In addition, this study examines Nigerian criminal legal system in comparison with International Law of Armed Conflict. The research reveals several discrepancies between theoretical and practical law in these areas, such as the partial or entire failure to implement the criminal legal framework for the protection of women during internal armed conflicts in Nigeria. This study argues that these discrepancies emanate from challenges, including the lack of a comprehensive definition of rape, conditions set (as in the Penal Code for prosecution of rape crimes), and strict implementation of the legislation. Cultural and religious practices are also identified as impediments to victims’ willingness to report crimes of rape, coupled with institutional ineffectiveness of the Nigerian security systems. It further argues that unless the proposed recommendations are addressed, there will be continuous human right abuses perpetrated against women during internal armed conflicts in Nigeria. iii Table of Contents Student Declaration ............................................................................................ ii Abstract .............................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Abbreviations .................................................................................................... xii PART ONE HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY REALITIES ................ 15 1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 16 1.1. Conceptualisation of rape and sexual abuse ...................................... 16 1.2. Overview of thesis .............................................................................. 17 1.3. Historical realities of war crimes ......................................................... 18 1.4. Collapse in security during internal conflict ......................................... 21 1.5. Social and community effect on conflict-related rape ......................... 22 1.6. Consequences of cultural and religious influences on rape victims .... 23 1.7. Political economy of rape .................................................................... 24 1.8. Summary ............................................................................................ 26 2. Empirical Background of Events ................................................................ 27 2.1. Aims and objectives of this research .................................................. 27 2.2. Rationale ............................................................................................ 27 2.3. Global trend of instrumentalization of women in conflict ..................... 29 2.4. Historical timeline on war criminality ................................................... 31 2.5. Assessment of human rights abuses in Nigeria as empirical realities. 35 2.6. History of Niger Delta oil conflict ......................................................... 36 2.7. Niger Delta minority ethnic groups and oil conflict in Nigeria .............. 37 2.8. Relationship between oil wars and rape in the Niger Delta ................. 39 2.9. Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria ..................................................... 40 iv 2.10. Summary ......................................................................................... 43 3. Methodology .............................................................................................. 44 3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 44 3.2. Originality and relevance of research ................................................. 45 3.3. Differences between quantitative and qualitative study ...................... 46 3.4. Rationale for using qualitative research in relation to this project ....... 47 3.5. Aims of qualitative research ................................................................ 49 3.6. Emic perspectives............................................................................... 50 3.7. Ethical issues and limitations of qualitative methods .......................... 52 3.8. Dual role and over-involvement .......................................................... 53 3.9. Challenges and possible hindrances in a qualitative approach .......... 54 3.10. Research ethics .............................................................................. 56 3.10.1. Privacy and confidentiality ....................................................... 56 3.10.2. Informed consent ..................................................................... 57 3.10.3. What constitutes undue intrusion, distress or harm? ............... 58 3.11. Qualitative methodology .................................................................. 59 3.11.1. Epistemology and school of analysis ....................................... 59 3.11.2. Grounded theory as a research method .................................. 60 3.11.3. Triangulation in research methods ........................................... 62 3.12. Theoretical perspectives ................................................................. 63 3.12.1. Social interactionism ................................................................ 64 3.12.2. Functionalist perspective ......................................................... 64 3.12.3. Conflict Perspective ................................................................. 65 3.12.4. Phenomenology ....................................................................... 65 3.12.5. Ethnomethodology ................................................................... 68 3.13. Use of qualitative approach in study of sexual violence in conflicts 70 v 3.14. Exploring of methods best suited to studies of sexual violence ...... 73 3.15. Rationale for semi-structured interview method .............................. 74 3.16. Summary ......................................................................................... 76 4. Incidents of Sexual Abuse in Armed Conflict ............................................. 78 4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 78 4.2. Account of past sexual violence against women in armed conflicts .... 79 4.3. Rape as a tactic in armed conflicts ..................................................... 84 4.4. The Rape of Nanjing (1938) and Comfort Women in the Japanese Imperial Army ................................................................................................ 88 4.5. Bangladesh’ War of Independence (1971) ......................................... 89 4.6. Second Congo War (Great War of Africa) (1998-2003) ...................... 90 4.7. Conflicts in Nigeria .............................................................................. 91 4.7.1. The movement for the survival of the Ogoni people .................... 92 4.7.2. Wilbros rape in Choba ................................................................. 94 4.7.3. Odi Massacre and rape ............................................................... 95 4.7.4. Chibok kidnapping ....................................................................... 97 4.7.5. Baga massacre and kidnapping .................................................. 98 4.8. Summary ............................................................................................ 99 5. History of Recognition of Rape as a War Crime ...................................... 100 5.1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 100 5.2. The role and rationale of this chapter ............................................... 101 5.3. Timeline on recognition of rape in conflicts ....................................... 103 5.4. Post-World War II trials ..................................................................... 107 5.5. Change in war tactics during conflicts and instrumentalization of women and children ................................................................................................