Orbital Debris: Technical and Legal Issues and Solutions by Michael W. Taylor Institute of Air and Space Law Faculty of Law, McGill University, Montreal August 2006 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Laws (LL.M.) Form Approved Report Documentation Page OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. 1. REPORT DATE 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED 01 AUG 2006 N/A - 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER Orbital Debris: Technical and Legal Issues and Solutions 5b. GRANT NUMBER 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER 5e. TASK NUMBER 5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION Institute of Air and Space Law Faculty of Law, McGill University, REPORT NUMBER Montreal 9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S ACRONYM(S) AFIT/CIA WPAFB, OH 45433 11. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S REPORT NUMBER(S) 12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Approved for public release, distribution unlimited 13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 14. ABSTRACT 15. SUBJECT TERMS 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION OF 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF ABSTRACT OF PAGES RESPONSIBLE PERSON a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE UU 120 unclassified unclassified unclassified Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8-98) Prescribed by ANSI Std Z39-18 A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my wife for her encouragement and for her edits to my thesis. I would also like to thank my wife and daughter for their patience and understanding throughout this project. I must also acknowledge the excellent editorial and substantive changes proposed by my classmate, co-worker, and friend, Andrew Williams. The comments, encouragement, and direction from my thesis advisor, Dr. Ram Jakhu, have helped make this thesis what it is. Finally, I would like to thank Renée-Noëlle Huppler for translating the abstract into French. The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the United States Air Force, Department of Defense, or the US Government. i A BSTRACT This thesis examines the current technological and legal issues concerning orbital debris (space debris). The unique physical characteristics of the space environment are identified and explained. The thesis then explores the causes of orbital debris and examines the risk posed by debris to the most frequently used orbital areas. Significant environmental, legal, political, and economic consequences of orbital debris are described. The current technical and legal controls on the creation of debris are discussed and evaluated. Finally, proposed solutions are considered and critiqued. The thesis concludes with a non-binding treaty-based proposal for a new legal debris control regime that can encourage compliance and enhance accountability. ii R ÉSUMÉ Cette thèse examine les questions technologiques et légales concernant le débris spatial. Les caractéristiques uniques et physiques de l’environnement spatial sont identifiées et expliquées. La thèse explore ensuite les causes du débris spatial et examine les risques posés par le débris dans les régions spatiales les plus fréquemment utilisées. Les conséquences du débris spatial sur les questions environnementales, légales, politiques et économiques sont décrites. Les contrôles techniques et légaux sur la création du débris spatial sont discutés et évalués. Finalement les solutions proposées sont considérées et critiquées. Cette thèse conclue avec une proposition basée sur un traité non-contraignant pour un nouveau régime de contrôle légal de débris qui encouragera l’obéissance et augmentera la responsabilité. iii A CRONYMS AND A BBREVIATIONS COPUOS Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space DoD United States Department of Defense DOT United States Department of Transportation ESA European Space Agency FCC United States Federal Communication Commission GEO Geosynchronous Orbit GPS Global Positioning System GTO Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit IADC Interagency Space Debris Coordination Committee ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ICJ International Court of Justice ISO International Organization for Standardization ITU International Telecommunications Union LEO Leo Earth Orbit MEO Medium Earth Orbit NASA United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration NDAA United States National Defense Authorization Act NEPA United States National Environmental Policy Act NOAA United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NPS Nuclear Power Sources ODCWG Orbital Debris Coordination Working Group SSN United States Space Surveillance Network iv T ABLE OF C ONTENTS Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. i Abstract................................................................................................................... ii Résumé...................................................................................................................iii Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................ iv Table of Contents.................................................................................................... v I. Introduction................................................................................................. 1 II. Technical Background ................................................................................ 2 A. The Space Environment.......................................................................... 2 1. Gravity ................................................................................................ 3 2. Earth’s Atmosphere and Magnetic Field ............................................ 4 3. Radiation............................................................................................. 5 4. Natural Debris..................................................................................... 6 B. Useful Orbits........................................................................................... 7 1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO)....................................................................... 7 2. Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO)................................................... 8 3. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) ............................................................. 10 4. Other Earth Orbits............................................................................. 10 5. Lagrange Points ................................................................................ 12 C. Sources of Artificial Orbital Debris...................................................... 12 1. Inactive Payloads .............................................................................. 14 2. Operational Debris............................................................................ 14 3. Fragmentation Debris........................................................................ 15 v 4. Microparticulate Matter .................................................................... 17 D. Calculating the Risks of Orbital Debris................................................ 17 1. Tracking Orbital Debris .................................................................... 18 2. Debris Models................................................................................... 23 3. Risk Variables................................................................................... 24 4. Historical Examples.......................................................................... 26 5. Future Estimates................................................................................ 28 E. Remediation of Orbital Debris.............................................................. 29 III. Consequences of Orbital Debris ........................................................... 30 A. Debris Avoidance.................................................................................. 30 B. Mass Penalty ......................................................................................... 31 C. Environmental Consequences............................................................... 32 D. Tracking ................................................................................................ 33 E. Insurance............................................................................................... 33 F. International Conflict and the Law of War........................................... 35 G. Debris Re-entering Earth’s Atmosphere............................................... 37 IV. Existing Legal and Technical Orbital Debris Control Regimes ........... 39 A. International Space Law ......................................................................